第三性別
第三性別(英語:Third gender),或稱為第三性或三性(英語:Third sex)指出那些屬於男女两性以外的社會群體,其中一些人可能按照自己的意願或被社會分類為男人或女人。
「第三」一詞通常意指為「其他」;有些人類學家和社會學家亦曾用到第四[1] 、第五[2]、甚至「多」[3]性別的說法。
生物学决定人类的染色体和內部生殖結構是男性、女性、或是出現性别二元以外的性別,这种变异可能對性別指定会造成一定程度的不確定性,称为双性人。[4][5]然而,个人認同或被社会认定为男人,女人或其他的状态通常也由其在生活的特定文化中的性别认同和性别角色来決定。并非所有文化都严格界定了性别角色。[6][7][8]
在不同的文化中,第三或第四性別可能代表非常不同的事物。
儘管在許多非西方文化中都發現了“第三”,“第四”和“多”性別角色的概念,但對於主流西方文化、概念和思想而言仍然有些陌生。[9]這個概念最有可能被現代LGBT或酷兒次文化所接受。儘管在西方學者中,尤其是試圖寫出南亞海吉拉或美國原住民非常規性別和雙靈人士的人類學家,經常試圖僅使用現代LGBT社區的語言來理解“第三性別”一詞,但是其他學者,尤其是土著學者,強調主流學者對文化的缺乏理解和背景導致了對第三性別人群的普遍錯誤陳述,以及對所涉文化的錯誤陳述,包括該概念是否真的適用於所有這些文化。[10][11][12][13]
生物性別與社會的關係
至少在20世纪70年代以来,人类学家在一些文化中發現了性别范畴,但他们无法用两性框架来充分解释性别范畴。[14]与此同时,女性主义者开始区分(生物)性别(sex)和(社会/心理)性别(gender)。当代性别理论家通常认为,兩性制度既不是先天的也不是普遍的。只承认兩個社會規範的性別系統被称为“順性別异性恋主義者”。
人类学家Michael G. Peletz认为,相信我們對於不同類型性別的觀念以及态度深深地影响着我们的生活,并反映了我们在社会中的价值观。 在Peletz的着作《現代亞洲的性別、性與身體政治》一书中,他描述道:[15]
就社會的目的而言,“性别”一词指的是至少有五类现象,包括文化類別、符号、含义、实践和制度化安排:(1)女性和女性气质、(2)男性和男性气质、(3)雙性性格的樣貌部分為男性、部分為女性,或無法定義其性別,以及雙性人個體,也稱雌雄同體,在某種程度上可以具有男性和女性的性器官或性特徵、(4)跨性别者,他们違反或超越性別規範界限的行为,因此被汙名化为“人妖”和(5)絕育、未婚或未成年的人,如太监。
各地情況
受不同的文化影響,各地區對第三性的看法不同,甚至大相徑庭,但近年由於社会的跨性别人士权益日益受到重视。
台灣
在台灣因網路社群中的成人內容、酒店文化、媒體報導下,原本的第三性屬較貶義詞。但近幾年社會氛圍下,由年輕人藉由各式社會運動、社群媒體力量,讓部分觀念本為保守的壯年人和老年人對於第三性有更多認知,慢慢減少對於第三性的負面觀感。[來源請求]
日本
“X性别”一词由日本率先使用,在英语国家,可與性别酷儿和第三性等词语相对应。此外,还有许多细节词可以被翻译为中性,两性,无性,性厌恶等等。第三性可能意味着變性人的生理性别。[16][17]根據“X-ジェンダー”一書中的跨性別訪談,有一位性別認同為X性別的人,因為他是不會準確的認為自己是男人或女人。[18]
印度
在古代的印度,海吉拉是神聖的,並作為靈媒被供奉在寺廟中。一般人新婚時會聘請海吉拉對其祝福。
現代的海吉拉卻是印度最受轻视、最孤立的群体,被排斥在社会的边缘,生活在阴暗的世界里,遵循着自己的习惯和规矩,与普通人保持着距离。小孩在出生時若被確認為海吉拉,會被海吉拉族群帶走一起生活,且與家人斷絕關係。
澳洲
澳洲於2011年9月15日宣佈,澳洲護照性別欄可使用"X"性,是变性人梅韦比(Norrie May-Welby)经长期上诉的结果。代表性別未定。澳洲居民需有医生或心理学家的书面证明才可获承认为X性别,一位香港跨性別者温泽仁可能是第一位從澳洲取得“X性别”身份的华人。[19][20][21]
英國
英国外交部接受“无性别”英国护照。准許護照性別一欄使用「X」,有关人士须在一年内申请,并需得到医生的书面证明日后以此性别生活。[20]
尼泊尔
在2011年5月,尼泊尔人口普查员挨家挨户地对其560万个家庭进行了走访,他们不光收集这个国家男性公民和女性公民的信息,还收集了“第三种性别”的信息。中央统计局局长巴卡什·比斯塔表示:“过去公认只有两种性别,男性和女性,尼泊尔将会出现第三种性别,公民可以在身份证明上登记自己为‘第三种性别’。”该举动被认为是世界第一。[22]
巴基斯坦
在2009年6月,巴基斯坦最高法院调查了巴基斯坦国内80000–300000个海吉拉人口的信息。在2009年12月,最高法院主席伊夫提卡·穆罕迈德·考得利调查了他们的国内现有户口和新注册户口的数据库和现有集体人口的身份证,找出明显的“性”区分。 海吉拉组织总统阿尔马斯·波比向路透社透露,“这是巴基斯坦62年历史以来,每步都给我们(海吉拉)的人口幸福。这是给海吉拉有福利和身份迈出了重要的一步,我们在社会里面得到幸福的进度已慢慢地被人们接受。现在社会的人群都认可海吉拉了。”在巴基斯坦,海吉拉的团体(一般412人,当地又名“上师”,又名“咕噜”)的生活都是一个家庭以表演、跳舞或唱歌的模式(例如生日、结婚或婴儿的出生)。这是主办方要给钱或粮食或其他物品给海吉拉的义务。在旁遮普中部地区,海吉拉的团体分开成多个团体或小团体不干涉其他领域的活动(因为其他领域团体被视为不道德的行为)。
泰国
泰國變性人(Kathoey)是泰国的一大文化特色(泰文中礼貌的说法是‘双性人小姐’,普通的说法是‘变性人’,因很多已完成性别重置手术)。2000年之后,选择性別轉換这条路的泰囯跨性別者每年都在增加,其中不乏普通家庭出生的孩子。在2010年4月,一次,在亲眼目睹某位跨性別女生在男厕所被同学欺凌,去女厕所又被人大骂为变态时,西提沙克校长向全校师生征求意见,并最终决定建造专用厕所,专门供“跨性別女子”使用。很快,此举便得到了泰国不少中小学的效仿。
孟加拉
孟加拉国从2013年11月份开始,正式承认第三性,在官方文件上标注海吉拉身份。
新西兰
从2012年12月开始,新西兰的护照上可使用用“X”(即未确定/未声明),并不需要他们同时更改出生证明和公民文件上的性别记录。[23][24][25]
德国
灵性
在印度教中,湿婆仍然被崇拜为Ardhnarishwara,即半男半女形式。[27]湿婆的象征,今天被称为Shivalinga,实际上包括'Yoni'(阴道)和'Ling'(阴茎)的组合。大多數土著社會將第三性別賦予了精神力量。[28][29]
例如,在印度次大陆,海吉拉应该有超自然力量,通过他們可以祝福人们或诅咒人们。这让海吉拉成为社会中独一无二的地方,传统印度人仍然邀请海吉拉在婚姻等重要场合寻求祝福。[30]
參考文獻
- ^ Trumbach, Randolph (1994). London’s Sapphists: From Three Sexes to Four Genders in the Making of Modern Culture. In Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History, edited by Gilbert Herdt, 111-36. New York: Zone (MIT). ISBN 978-0-942299-82-3
- ^ Graham, Sharyn (2001), Sulawesi's fifth gender (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), Inside Indonesia, April–June 2001.
- ^ Martin, M. Kay; Voorhies, Barbara. 4. Supernumerary Sexes. Female of the Species . New York, N.Y.: Columbia University Press. 1975. ISBN 9780231038751. OCLC 1094960.
- ^ Money, John; Ehrhardt, Anke A. Man & Woman Boy & Girl. Differentiation and dimorphism of gender identity from conception to maturity . USA: The Johns Hopkins University Press. 1972. ISBN 978-0-8018-1405-1.
- ^ Domurat Dreger, Alice. Hermaphrodites and the Medical Invention of Sex. USA: Harvard University Press. 2001. ISBN 978-0-674-00189-3.
- ^ LeBow, Diana, Rethinking Matriliny Among the Hopi, p.8.
- ^ Schlegel, Alice, Hopi Gender Ideology of Female Superiority, in Quarterly Journal of Ideology: "A Critique of the Conventional Wisdom", vol. VIII, no. 4, 1984, pp.44–52
- ^ 100 Native Americans Who Shaped American History, Juettner, 2007.
- ^ McGee, R. Jon and Richard L. Warms 2011 Anthropological Theory: An Introductory History. New York, McGraw Hill.
- ^ Asia and the Pacific – ANU. [27 December 2014]. (原始内容存档于2012-02-24).
- ^ Pember, Mary Annette. 'Two Spirit' Tradition Far From Ubiquitous Among Tribes. Rewire. Oct 13, 2016 [Oct 17, 2016]. (原始内容存档于2016-10-19).
Unfortunately, depending on an oral tradition to impart our ways to future generations opened the floodgates for early non-Native explorers, missionaries, and anthropologists to write books describing Native peoples and therefore bolstering their own role as experts. These writings were and still are entrenched in the perspective of the authors who were and are mostly white men.
- ^ de Vries, Kylan Mattias. Berdache (Two-Spirit). O'Brien, Jodi (编). Encyclopedia of gender and society. Los Angeles: SAGE. 2009: 64 [6 March 2015]. ISBN 9781412909167. (原始内容存档于2020-01-13).
[Two-Spirit] implies that the individual is both male and female and that these aspects are intertwined within them. The term moves away from traditional Native American/First Nations cultural identities and meanings of sexuality and gender variance. It does not take into account the terms and meanings from individual nations and tribes. ... Although two-spirit implies to some a spiritual nature, that one holds the spirit of two, both male and female, traditional Native Americans/First Nations peoples view this as a Western concept.
- ^ Kehoe, Alice B. Appropriate Terms. SAA Bulletin. Society for American Archaeology 16(2), UC-Santa Barbara. 2002 [2019-05-01]. ISSN 0741-5672. (原始内容存档于2004-11-05).
At the conferences that produced the book, Two-Spirited People, I heard several First Nations people describe themselves as very much unitary, neither "male" nor "female," much less a pair in one body. Nor did they report an assumption of duality within one body as a common concept within reservation communities; rather, people confided dismay at the Western proclivity for dichotomies. Outside Indo-European-speaking societies, "gender" would not be relevant to the social personae glosses "men" and "women," and "third gender" likely would be meaningless. The unsavory word "berdache" certainly ought to be ditched (Jacobs et al. 1997:3-5), but the urban American neologism "two-spirit" can be misleading.
- ^ Martin, M. Kay; Voorhies, Barbara. 4. Supernumerary Sexes. Female of the Species . New York, N.Y.: Columbia University Press. 1975. ISBN 9780231038751. OCLC 1094960.
- ^ Peletz, Michael G. Gender, Sexuality, and Body Politics in Modern Asia. Michigan: Association for Asian Studies. 2007. ISBN 9780924304507.
- ^ 存档副本. [2019-12-14]. (原始内容存档于2016-03-16).
- ^ 存档副本. [2019-12-14]. (原始内容存档于2016-03-04).
- ^ * 吉永みち子 (2000). 性同一性障害-性転換の朝 集英社
- ^ [1] (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) 自由時報 2011-9-16
- ^ 20.0 20.1 存档副本. [2011-10-09]. (原始内容存档于2011-10-07).人民網健康卫生频道 2011年09月26日 引用错误:带有name属性“people.com.cn”的
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- ^ Nepal census recognizes 'third gender' (May, 31st. 2011) [2] (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- ^ The Department of Internal Affairs, New Zealand Government. Retrieved 10 December 2012. [3] (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- ^ X marks the spot on passport for transgender travellers [4] (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
- ^ 新西兰护照开始标注“第三种性别. [2019-12-14]. (原始内容存档于2016-03-04).
- ^ Germany got it right by offering a third gender option on birth certificates. Guardian News. 10 November 2013 [2014-04-01]. (原始内容存档于2013-12-04).
- ^ Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision). [2020-09-16]. (原始内容存档于2019-05-24).
- ^ Thevesselofgod.com. [27 December 2014]. (原始内容存档于2019-12-14).
- ^ Paths to The Divine: Ancient and Indian (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) By George McLean, Vensus A. George, Quote: Siva: The Hermaphrodite The Lord Shiva is the underlying neutral and changeless reality, the undifferentiated absolute Consciousness, who is the foundation of every change and becoming. The hermaphrodite reality is one which is independent of all distinctions of male and female, the phenomenal and the non-phenomenal, and yet forms the basis of all such distinctions. The Puranas speak of Lord Shiva as the Hermaphrodite reality, though distinctionless within Himself, letting the distinctions of the manifold world spring up from Him. The Puranic thinkers interpreted and represented this hermaphrodite aspect of the Lord Siva in various ways. One such symbol expression is the figure of His Sakti. Another such symbol is the Phallus *(the male reproductive part) and the Yoni (the female reproductive part). A third, a more anthropomorphic metaphor, is that of the union between Siva and His many consorts, such as, Parvati, Uma and others. All these symbolisms express the truth that the variety of this universe stems from the lord Siva through his Sakti. To explain this point very picturesquely, the Puranas apply the mythological story of creation by way of the sexual union between Prajaapati and his daughter to Siva who, by His eternal union with His Sakti creates the world. The Puraanas also use another more sacrificial symbollism to expound the hermaphrodite characteristic of Shiva, according to which the male principle is represented as Fire, the devourer of the offering, and the female principle is the Soma, the devoured offering. In this symbolism, the hermaphrodite is the embodiment of the cosmic sacrifice, through which the universe emerges from the Lord Siva.
- ^ Hijras of Muslim India and Pakistan (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) etransgender.com; Quote: In North India and in Pakistan Hindus and Muslims alike believe in the powers of hijras to bless or curse others. To Hindus and Hindu hijras this is connected to the worship of Bahuchara Mata. Hindus believe that the powers of this feminine aspect of the divine flows in an almost shamanic way through the "eunuchs". In Pakistan and in traditional Indian Muslim families the mukhannath´ power to curse is called "bad du`a". This implies the faith that every supplicational prayer ("du`a") done by a faithful hijra will be fulfilled because she is specially blessed as a compensation for the fact that she is denied to have children and a "normal" family life as a born woman.