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在哈德遜灣西岸附近生成，有可能因潮汐流而保持不凍的冰間湖，其上因寒冷天氣而凝結生成的煙羽清晰可見

冰間湖（英語：Polynya；/pəˈlɪnjə/）是一片被海冰包圍的開放水體[1]，作為地理學術語時則指在毗連的浮冰或岸冰（英语：fast ice）內的不凍海域。該術語原文為一來自俄語「Полынья」（俄語發音：[pəɫɨˈnʲja]）的借詞，意指「天然冰洞」，並在19世紀開始被極地探險家用來描述冰洋內可航行的部分[2][3]。

冰間湖主要可分為兩種，分別是全年都可在南極和北極沿海附近發現，形成原因為附在海岸的冰被強風推離至外海的沿海冰間湖（Coastal Polynyas）；以及一種偶然生成在尤其是南極洲周邊冰堆的洋中冰間湖（Mid-sea Polynyas），又稱大洋冰間湖（Open-sea Polynyas）。後者最著名的其中一個例子是溫德爾冰間湖（英语：Weddell Polynya）[4]，它由於位在拉扎列夫海的毛德海隆（英语：Maud Rise）海底山上，因此另稱毛德海隆冰間湖（Maud Rise Polynya）。其在1973年9月第一次被發現，隨後連續兩年冬季（1974–1976）皆未被冰封，並在2017年9月重新出現[5]。

形成

 
在南極由下降風生成的沿海冰間湖

沿海冰間湖主要通過兩種過程形成[6]：

  • A sensible heat polynya is thermodynamically driven, and typically occurs when warm water upwelling keeps the surface water temperature at or above the freezing point. This reduces ice production and may stop it altogether.
  • A latent heat polynya is formed through the action of katabatic winds, which act to drive ice away from a fixed boundary such as a coastline, fast ice, or an ice bridge. The polynya forms initially when first-year pack ice is driven away from the coast, which leaves an area of open water within which new ice is formed. This new ice is then also herded downwind toward the first-year pack ice. When it reaches the pack ice, the new ice is consolidated onto the pack ice. This process continues over time. Latent heat polynyas are therefore a major source of sea ice production in the Antarctic.

洋中冰間湖只在合乎先決條件，且風力大到足夠讓浮冰漂向相反方向並推開堆冰時，才會於符合特定天氣條件的大洋區域內出現[7]。极地涡旋是其中一個觸發洋中冰間湖生成的典型因素，箇中原因在於氣旋本身的強風會以相反的方向將浮冰推離風眼[7]。

南極底層水

主条目：南極底層水

南極底層水（Antarctic Bottom Water，AABW）是存在於南冰洋的深海帶內，對全球翻轉環流具關鍵作用的高濃度鹽水[8]，而沿海冰間湖（潛熱冰間湖）正是這些底層水的其中一個來源。鄰近冰間湖的海冰在形成時會因為鹽水排斥（英语：brine rejection）的緣故，導致周圍的海水鹽度增加。相比起普通海水，高鹽度海水有著更大的密度，後者會一直下沉至深海，形成AABW[9][10]。當冰塊遠離海岸、隨風移動時，南極冰間湖便因此生成，隨後湖體凍結，再因鹽水排斥而生成另一塊海冰[11]。

生態

 
在巴芬灣冰間湖出現的一角鲸
 
北冰洋水體的食物網示意圖，最底層的生物浮游植物之所以能夠存活，全因冰間湖能供給陽光的能量

部分冰間湖，例如加拿大和格陵蘭之間的北水冰間湖（英语：North Water Polynya）每年都會季節性地在同一時間和地點生成。動物可以根據這規律調整自己的生活習慣，也因如此，冰間湖具有特殊的生態研究意義。而在湖水冰封的冬季，不往南遷居的海象、獨角鯨和白鯨等海洋哺乳動物仍留在當地。另外，北極熊能夠在冰間湖的開放水域中最遠可游65公里（35海里）的距離[12]。

水華

The presence of open water in an otherwise ice-covered area can result in a localized marine algal bloom, also referred to as a polynya bloom.[13] While algal communities are often found under sea ice, as evidenced by ice algae, the rate of phytoplankton growth is substantially higher in the open water of a polynya.[14] The primary drivers of polynya blooms are sunlight and nutrients. Specifically, the lack of sea ice allows light, a necessary component for photosynthesis, to penetrate deeper into the water and enable elevated phytoplankton growth compared to the surrounding ice-covered waters.[13] Furthermore, polynya formation is typically associated with upwelling, a process that transports nutrient-rich water from the ocean bottom towards the surface.[15] This influx of nutrients coupled with increased light levels often results in polynya blooms.[13]

生態生產力

In general, polynyas tend to be more biologically productive as a result of containing more phytoplankton than the surrounding water.[16] Therefore, due to the role of primary producers as the foundation of the marine food web, polynyas are a critical food source for a variety of organisms such as fish, birds, and marine mammals.[16] Listed below are several examples of the importance of polynyas to polar communities.

  • 海豹的死亡率在羅斯海冰間湖冰封期間上升[13]
  • 在南極洲東部，91%的阿德利企鵝群落與沿海冰間湖相連，且冰間湖的大小通常與群落大小成正比[16]
  • The presence of polynyas in McMurdo Sound provides an ice-free area where penguins can feed, directly effecting the survival of the Cape Royds penguin colony.[17]
  • The downward transport of carbon (in the form of marine snow) from the surface to the seafloor associated with polynya blooms provides the nutrients necessary to sustain rich benthic communities.[18]

對人類的作用

冰間湖對在高緯度地帶生活的人們來說至關重要，比如世上最大且具最高生態生產力的北極冰間湖——北水冰間湖（英语：North Water Polynya）為凱恩灣至兰开斯特海峡沿海貧瘠地區的重要食物來源，使這些城能在歷史長河中延續數千年之久[19]。除此之外，它有可能是4500年前最初定居在格陵蘭的原始人遷移到今加拿大北部地區的陸橋所在地[19]，同時也有跡象表明北水冰間湖在歷史上曾是圖勒人、诺斯人、因紐特人和西方探險家的獵場[19]。如今格陵蘭最北端的城鎮群卡納克（圖勒）、凱凱塔特（英语：Qeqertat）、薩維斯維克（英语：Savissivik）與西奧拉帕盧克（英语：Siorapaluk）則有賴該冰間湖才得以存在[20]。

北極航行

當美國海軍潛艇在1950和60年代前往北極探勘時，他們對如穿越北冰洋厚厚的浮冰一事深感憂慮。1962年，鰩魚號（英语：SS Seadragon (SSN-584)）和海龍號潛艇（英语：USS Seadragon (SSN-584)）在北極一大型冰間湖內同時浮出水面，達成美國太西洋艦隊和太平洋艦隊的首次極地會師[21]。

參見

參考資料

  1. ^ W.J. Stringer and J.E. Groves. 1991. Extent of Polynyas in the Bering and Chukchi Seas
  2. ^ Sherard Osborn, Peter Wells and A. Petermann. 1866. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of Australia, Vol 12 no 2 1867–1868 pp 92–113 On the Exploration of the North Polar Region
  3. ^ polynya, Merriam Webster Dictionary
  4. ^ Francis, Diana; Eayrs, Clare; Cuesta, Juan; Holland, David. Polar Cyclones at the Origin of the Reoccurrence of the Maud Rise Polynya in Austral Winter 2017. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 2019, 124 (10): 5251–5267. Bibcode:2019JGRD..124.5251F. ISSN 2169-8996. S2CID 149497432. doi:10.1029/2019JD030618 （英语）. 
  5. ^ Weddell Polynya, NASA, 1999
  6. ^ Skogseth, R.; Haugan, P. M.; Haarpaintner, J. Ice and brine production in Storfjorden from four winters of satellite and in situ observations and modeling. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 2004-10-01, 109 (C10): C10008. Bibcode:2004JGRC..10910008S. ISSN 2156-2202. doi:10.1029/2004jc002384 （英语）. 
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 Francis, Diana; Eayrs, Clare; Cuesta, Juan; Holland, David. Polar Cyclones at the Origin of the Reoccurrence of the Maud Rise Polynya in Austral Winter 2017 (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 24 April 2019, 124 (10): 5251–5267. Bibcode:2019JGRD..124.5251F. S2CID 149497432. doi:10.1029/2019JD030618. 
  8. ^ Johnson, Gregory C. Quantifying Antarctic Bottom Water and North Atlantic Deep Water volumes. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 2008-05-01, 113 (C5): C05027. Bibcode:2008JGRC..113.5027J. ISSN 2156-2202. doi:10.1029/2007jc004477   （英语）. 
  9. ^ Tamura, Takeshi; Ohshima, Kay I.; Nihashi, Sohey. Mapping of sea ice production for Antarctic coastal polynyas. Geophysical Research Letters. 2008-04-01, 35 (7): L07606. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..35.7606T. ISSN 1944-8007. S2CID 128716199. doi:10.1029/2007gl032903   （英语）. 
  10. ^ Ohshima, Kay I.; Fukamachi, Yasushi; Williams, Guy D.; Nihashi, Sohey; Roquet, Fabien; Kitade, Yujiro; Tamura, Takeshi; Hirano, Daisuke; Herraiz-Borreguero, Laura. Antarctic Bottom Water production by intense sea-ice formation in the Cape Darnley polynya. Nature Geoscience. 2013, 6 (3): 235–240. Bibcode:2013NatGe...6..235O. doi:10.1038/ngeo1738. 
  11. ^ Ohshima, Kay I.; Fukamachi, Yasushi; Williams, Guy D.; Nihashi, Sohey; Roquet, Fabien; Kitade, Yujiro; Tamura, Takeshi; Hirano, Daisuke; Herraiz-Borreguero, Laura. Antarctic Bottom Water production by intense sea-ice formation in the Cape Darnley polynya. Nature Geoscience. 2013, 6 (3): 235–240. Bibcode:2013NatGe...6..235O. doi:10.1038/ngeo1738. 
  12. ^ C. Michael Hogan. 2008 Polar Bear: Ursus maritimus, Globaltwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期2008-12-24.
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Earth Science Data Systems, NASA. Earthdata. Earthdata. 15 March 1995 [2022-10-06] （英语）. 
  14. ^ Tremblay, J.-E.; Smith, W. O. Smith, W. O.; Barber, D. G. , 编. Chapter 8 Primary Production and Nutrient Dynamics in Polynyas. Elsevier Oceanography Series. Polynyas: Windows to the World (Elsevier). 2007-01-01, 74: 239–269 [2022-10-06]. ISBN 9780444529527. doi:10.1016/S0422-9894(06)74008-9 （英语）. 
  15. ^ Jena, Babula; Narayana Pillai, Anilkumar. Satellite observations of new phytoplankton blooms in the Maud Rise Polynya, Southern Ocean. The Cryosphere Discussions. 2019-12-11. S2CID 210145931. doi:10.5194/tc-2019-282  .  Published as doi:10.5194/tc-14-1385-2020
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Arrigo, Kevin R. Phytoplankton dynamics within 37 Antarctic coastal polynya systems. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2003, 108 (C8): 3271. Bibcode:2003JGRC..108.3271A. ISSN 0148-0227. doi:10.1029/2002JC001739 （英语）. 
  17. ^ Penguins in high latitudes. NZETC. 12 June 2014. 
  18. ^ Labrousse, Sara; Williams, Guy; Tamura, Takeshi; Bestley, Sophie; Sallée, Jean-Baptiste; Fraser, Alexander D.; Sumner, Michael; Roquet, Fabien; Heerah, Karine; Picard, Baptiste; Guinet, Christophe; Harcourt, Robert; McMahon, Clive; Hindell, Mark A.; Charrassin, Jean-Benoit. Coastal polynyas: Winter oases for subadult southern elephant seals in East Antarctica. Scientific Reports. 2018-02-16, 8 (1): 3183. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8.3183L. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5816617  . PMID 29453356. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-21388-9. 
  19. ^ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Hastrup, Kirsten; Mosbech, Anders; Grønnow, Bjarne. Introducing the North Water: Histories of exploration, ice dynamics, living resources, and human settlement in the Thule Region. Ambio. 2018-03-01, 47 (Suppl 2): 162–174. Bibcode:2018Ambio..47S.162H. ISSN 0044-7447. PMC 5963564  . PMID 29516442. doi:10.1007/s13280-018-1030-2. 
  20. ^ Ribeiro, Sofia; Limoges, Audrey; Massé, Guillaume; Johansen, Kasper L.; Colgan, William; Weckström, Kaarina; Jackson, Rebecca; Georgiadis, Eleanor; Mikkelsen, Naja; Kuijpers, Antoon; Olsen, Jesper; Olsen, Steffen M.; Nissen, Martin; Andersen, Thorbjørn J.; Strunk, Astrid; Wetterich, Sebastian; Syväranta, Jari; Henderson, Andrew C. G.; Mackay, Helen; Taipale, Sami; Jeppesen, Erik; Larsen, Nicolaj K.; Crosta, Xavier; Giraudeau, Jacques; Wengrat, Simone; Nuttall, Mark; Grønnow, Bjarne; Mosbech, Anders; Davidson, Thomas A. Vulnerability of the North Water ecosystem to climate change. Nature Communications. 2021-07-22, 12. ISSN 2041-1723. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-24742-0. 
  21. ^ Tales of a Cold War Submariner by Dan Summitt, 2004.

外部連結

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