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  关于与第二次世界大战无关的其它东京爆炸事件，请见「三菱重工爆炸事件」和「成田国际机场爆炸案（英语：1985 Narita International Airport bombing）」。
Bombing of Tokyo
the Air Raids on Japan during World War II的一部分

Tokyo burns under B-29 firebomb assault, 26 May 1945
日期1942, 1944–1945
地点
Tokyo, Japan
结果 120,000+ civilian deaths; roughly 1,000,000 displaced
参战方
 美国  日本

东京大轰炸（東京大空襲，Tōkyōdaikūshū）为第二次世界大战太平洋战争期间美国陆军航空军实施的一系列燃烧弹空袭。其中，1945年3月9日夜间至10日凌晨执行的“礼拜堂行动（英语：Operation Meetinghouse）”被视为人类历史上破坏性最强的单次空袭[1]。东京市中心16平方英里（41平方公里）的区域被摧毁，导致估计10万平民死亡，超过100万人无家可归。

美国最早曾于1942年4月对东京执行过一次从海上起飞的小规模空袭。戰略轟炸 and urban area bombing began in 1944 after the long-range B-29超級堡壘轟炸機 entered service, first deployed from 中国 and thereafter the 马里亚纳群岛. B-29 raids from those islands began on 17 November 1944, and lasted until 15 August 1945, the day of 日本投降.[2]:505-756

Over 50% of Tokyo's industry was spread out among residential and commercial neighborhoods; firebombing cut the whole city's output in half.[3]

杜立德空袭

主条目：杜立德空袭

The first raid on Tokyo was the 杜立德空袭 of 18 April 1942, when sixteen B-25米切尔型轰炸机 were launched from 大黃蜂號航空母艦 to attack targets including 横滨 and Tokyo and then fly on to airfields in China. The raid was retaliation against the Japanese 偷袭珍珠港. The raid did little damage to Japan's war capability but was a significant propaganda victory for the United States.[4] Launched at longer range than planned when the task force encountered a Japanese 哨艇（英语：picket boat）, all of the attacking aircraft either crashed or 水上迫降（英语：Water landing） short of the airfields designated for landing. One aircraft landed in the neutral 苏联 where the crew was interned, but then smuggled over the border into Iran on 11 May 1943. Two crews were captured by the Japanese in occupied China. Three crewmen from these groups were later executed.[5]:126[6]

B-29 的空袭

 
轰炸后的东京鸟瞰

The key development for the bombing of Japan was the B-29超级堡垒战略轰炸机, which had an operational range of 3,250海里（3,740英里；6,020公里） and was capable of attacking at high altitude above 30,000英尺（9,100米）, where enemy defenses were very weak. Almost 90% of the bombs dropped on the home islands of Japan were delivered by this type of bomber. Once Allied ground forces had captured islands sufficiently close to Japan, airfields were built on those islands (particularly 塞班岛 and 天宁岛) and B-29s could reach Japan for bombing missions.[7]

The initial raids were carried out by the Twentieth Air Force operating out of mainland China in Operation Matterhorn under XX Bomber Command, but these could not reach Tokyo. Operations from the Northern Mariana Islands commenced in November 1944 after the XXI Bomber Command was activated there.[8]

The high altitude bombing attacks using general purpose bombs were observed to be ineffective by USAAF leaders due to high winds—later discovered to be the jet stream—which carried the bombs off target.[9]

Between May and September 1943, bombing trials were conducted on the Japanese Village set-piece target, located at the Dugway Proving Grounds. These trials demonstrated the effectiveness of incendiary bombs against wood-and-paper buildings, and resulted in Curtis LeMay ordering the bombers to change tactics to utilize these munitions against Japan.[10]

The first such raid was against 神户 on 4 February 1945. Tokyo was hit by incendiaries on 25 February 1945 when 174 B-29s flew a high altitude raid during daylight hours and destroyed around 643 acre（260 ha） (2.6 km2) of the snow-covered city, using 453.7 tons of mostly incendiaries with some fragmentation bombs.[11] After this raid, LeMay ordered the B-29 bombers to attack again but at a relatively low altitude of 5,000至9,000英尺（1,500至2,700米） and at night, because Japan's anti-aircraft artillery defenses were weakest in this altitude range, and the fighter defenses were ineffective at night. LeMay ordered all defensive guns but the tail gun removed from the B-29s so that the aircraft would be lighter and use less fuel.[12]

礼拜堂行动

主条目：礼拜堂行动（英语：Bombing of Tokyo (10 March 1945)）
 
A residential section Tokyo that was destroyed following Operation Meetinghouse, the firebombing of Tokyo on the night of 9/10 March 1945

On the night of 9–10 March, 1945,[13] 334 B-29s took off to raid with 279 of them dropping 1,665 tons of bombs on Tokyo. The bombs were mostly the 500-英磅（230-公斤） E-46 cluster bomb which released 38 napalm-carrying M-69 incendiary bomblets at an altitude of 2,000—2,500英尺（610—760米）. The M-69s punched through thin roofing material or landed on the ground; in either case they ignited 3–5 seconds later, throwing out a jet of flaming napalm globs. A lesser number of M-47 incendiaries was also dropped: the M-47 was a 100-英磅（45-公斤） jelled-gasoline and white phosphorus bomb which ignited upon impact. In the first two hours of the raid, 226 of the attacking aircraft unloaded their bombs to overwhelm the city's fire defenses.[14] The first B-29s to arrive dropped bombs in a large X pattern centered in Tokyo's densely populated working class district near the docks in both Koto and Chūō city wards on the water; later aircraft simply aimed near this flaming X. The individual fires caused by the bombs joined to create a general conflagration, which would have been classified as a firestorm but for prevailing winds gusting at 17至28 mph（27至45 km/h）.[15] Approximately 15.8平方英里（4,090公頃） of the city were destroyed and some 100,000 people are estimated to have died.[16][17] A grand total of 282 of the 339 B-29s launched for "Meetinghouse" made it to the target, 27 of which were lost due to being shot down by Japanese air defenses, mechanical failure, or being caught in updrafts caused by the massive fires.[18]

结果

 
A bird's-eye view of Tokyo before and after the air raids

Damage to Tokyo's heavy industry was slight until firebombing destroyed much of the light industry that was used as an integral source for small machine parts and time-intensive processes. Firebombing also killed or made homeless many workers who had taken part in the war industry. Over 50% of Tokyo's industry was spread out among residential and commercial neighborhoods; firebombing cut the whole city's output in half.[19] The destruction and damage was especially severe in the eastern areas of the city.[來源請求]

天皇裕仁's tour of the destroyed areas of Tokyo in March 1945 was the beginning of his personal involvement in the peace process, culminating in Japan's surrender six months later.[20]

伤亡估计

 
礼拜堂行动后，烧焦的日本平民遗骸

美國戰略轟炸調查團后来估计，单这一次空袭，造成将近8.8万人丧生，4.1万人受伤，超过100万居民失去住所。东京消防厅估计的伤亡要高一些：死9.7万人，伤12.5万人。东京都警视厅 established a figure of 83,793 dead and 40,918 wounded and 286,358 buildings and homes destroyed.[21] Historian Richard Rhodes put deaths at over 100,000, injuries at a million and homeless residents at a million.[22] These casualty and damage figures could be low; Mark Selden（英语：Mark Selden） wrote in Japan Focus:

 
一名背着小孩的妇女的烧焦的尸体

The figure of roughly 100,000 deaths, provided by Japanese and American authorities, both of whom may have had reasons of their own for minimizing the death toll, seems to be arguably low in light of population density, wind conditions, and survivors' accounts. With an average of 103,000 inhabitants per square mile (396 people per hectare) and peak levels as high as 135,000 per square mile (521 people per hectare), the highest density of any industrial city in the world, and with firefighting measures ludicrously inadequate to the task, 15.8平方英里（41平方公里） of Tokyo were destroyed on a night when fierce winds whipped the flames and walls of fire blocked tens of thousands fleeing for their lives. An estimated 1.5 million people lived in the burned out areas.[21]

In his 1968 book, reprinted in 1990, historian Gabriel Kolko cited a figure of 125,000 deaths.[23] Elise K. Tipton, professor of Japan studies, arrived at a rough range of 75,000 to 200,000 deaths.[24] Donald L. Miller, citing Knox Burger, stated that there were "at least 100,000" Japanese deaths and "about one million" injured.[25]

The Operation Meetinghouse firebombing of Tokyo on the night of 9 March 1945 was the single deadliest air raid of World War II,[26] greater than 德累斯顿,[27] 汉堡, 廣島，或長崎 as single events.[28][29]

战后恢复

 
1947 U.S. military survey showing bomb-damaged areas of Tokyo

战后，东京奋力重建。In 1945 and 1946, the city received a share of the national reconstruction budget roughly proportional to its amount of bombing damage (26.6%), but in successive years Tokyo saw its share dwindle. By 1949, Tokyo was given only 10.9% of the budget; at the same time there was runaway inflation devaluing the money. Occupation authorities such as Joseph Dodge stepped in and drastically cut back on Japanese government rebuilding programs, focusing instead on simply improving roads and transportation. Tokyo did not experience fast economic growth until the 1950s.[30]

Memorials

 
Cenotaph of a citizen. Bombing of Tokyo in World War II, Sumida park, Taitō, Tokyo.

Between 1948 and 1951 the ashes of 105,400 people killed in the attacks on Tokyo were interred in Yokoamicho Park in Sumida Ward. A memorial to the raids was opened in the park in March 2001.[31]

After the war, Japanese author Katsumoto Saotome, a survivor of the 10 March 1945 firebombing, helped start a library about the raid in Koto Ward called the Center of the Tokyo Raids and War Damage. The library contains documents and literature about the raid plus survivor accounts collected by Saotome and the Association to Record the Tokyo Air Raid.[32]

Postwar Japanese politics

In 2007, Japanese Prime Minister 安倍晋三 apologized in print, acknowledging Japan's guilt in the bombing of Chinese cities and civilians beginning in 1938. He wrote that the Japanese government should have surrendered as soon as losing the war was inevitable, an action that would have prevented Tokyo from being firebombed in March 1945, as well as subsequent bombings of other cities.[33] In 2013, during his second term as prime minister, Abe's cabinet stated that the raids were "incompatible with 人道主义, which is one of the foundations of international law", but also noted that it is difficult to argue that the raids were illegal under the international laws of the time.[34][35]

In 2007, 112 members of the Association for the Bereaved Families of the Victims of the Tokyo Air Raids brought a class action against the Japanese government, demanding an apology and 1.232 billion yen in compensation. Their suit charged that the Japanese government invited the raid by failing to end the war earlier, and then failed to help the civilian victims of the raids while providing considerable support to former military personnel and their families.[36] The plaintiffs' case was dismissed at the first judgement in December 2009, and their appeal was rejected.[37] The plaintiffs then appealed to the Supreme Court, which rejected their case in May 2013.[38]

Partial list of missions

B-29

  • 24 November 1944: 111 B-29s hit an aircraft factory on the rim of the city.[39]
  • 27 November 1944: 81 B-29s hit the dock and urban area and 13 targets of opportunity.[40]
  • 29–30 November 1944: two incendiary raids on industrial areas, burning 2,773 structures.[40]
  • 19 February 1945: 119 B-29s hit port and urban area.
  • 24 February 1945: 229 B-29s plus over 1600 carrier-based planes.[41]
  • 25 February 1945: 174 B-29s dropping incendiaries destroy 28,000 buildings.[42]
  • 4 March 1945: 159 B-29s hit urban area.[43]
  • 10 March 1945: 334 B-29s dropping incendiaries destroy 267,000 buildings; 25% of city[43] (Operation Meetinghouse) killing some 100,000.
  • 2 April 1945: 100 B-29s bomb the Nakajima aircraft factory.[44]
  • 3 April 1945: 68 B-29s bomb the Koizumi aircraft factory and urban areas in Tokyo.[44]
  • 7 April 1945: 101 B-29s bomb the Nakajima aircraft factory again[44]
  • 13 April 1945: 327 B-29s bomb the arsenal area.[45]
  • 20 July 1945: 1 B-29 drops a Pumpkin bomb (bomb with same ballistics as the Fat Man nuclear bomb) through overcast. It aimed at, but missed, the Imperial Palace.[46]
  • 8 August 1945: 60 B-29s bomb the aircraft factory and arsenal.
  • 10 August 1945: 70 B-29s bomb the arsenal complex.[47]

Other

  • 16–17 February 1945: carrier-based aircraft, including dive bombers, escorted by Hellcat fighters attacked Tokyo. Over two days, over 1,500 American planes and hundreds of Japanese planes were in the air. "By the end of February 17, more than five hundred Japanese planes, both on the ground and in the air, had been lost, and Japan's aircraft works had been badly hit. The Americans lost eighty planes."[48]
  • 18 August 1945: The last U.S. air combat casualty of World War II occurred during mission 230 A-8, when two Consolidated B-32 Dominators of the 386th Bomb Squadron, 312th Bomb Group, launched from Yontan Airfield, Okinawa, for a photo reconnaissance run over Tokyo, Japan. Both bombers were attacked by several Japanese fighters of both the 302nd Naval Air Group at Atsugi and the Yokosuka Air Group that made 10 gunnery passes. Japanese IJNAS aces Sadamu Komachi and Saburō Sakai were part of this attack. The B-32 piloted by 1st Lt. John R. Anderson, was hit at 20,000 feet; cannon fire knocked out the number two (port inner) engine, and three crew were injured, including Sgt. Anthony J. Marchione, 19, of the 20th Reconnaissance Squadron, who took a 20 mm hit to the chest and died 30 minutes later. Tail gunner Sgt. John Houston destroyed one attacker. The lead bomber, Consolidated B-32-20-CF Dominator, 42-108532, "Hobo Queen II", piloted by 1st Lt. James Klein, was not seriously damaged but the second Consolidated B-32-35-CF Dominator, 42-108578, lost an engine, had the upper turret knocked out of action, and partially lost rudder control. Both bombers landed at Yontan Airfield just past ~1800 hrs. having survived the last air combat of the Pacific war. The following day, propellers were removed from Japanese aircraft as part of the surrender agreement. Marchione was buried on Okinawa on 19 August, his body being returned to his Pottstown, Pennsylvania home on 18 March 1949. He was interred in St. Aloysius Old Cemetery with full military honors.[49] "Hobo Queen II" was dismantled at Yonton Airfield following a 9 September nosegear collapse and damage during lifting. B-32, 42-108578, was scrapped at Kingman, Arizona after the war.[50]

References

  1. ^ Long, Tony. March 9, 1945: Burning the Heart Out of the Enemy. wired.com. Wired Magazine. March 9, 2011 [June 22, 2018]. 1945: In the single deadliest air raid of World War II, 330 American B-29s rain incendiary bombs on Tokyo, touching off a firestorm that kills upwards of 100,000 people, burns a quarter of the city to the ground, and leaves a million homeless. 
  2. ^ Craven, Wesley Frank; Cate, James Lea. section IV. The Army Air Forces in World War II（英语：The Army Air Forces in World War II）, Volume Five, the Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki June 1944 to August 1945. Office of Air Force History. ISBN 091279903X （英语）. 
  3. ^ United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Summary Report (Pacific War), p. 18.
  4. ^ Shapiro, Isaac. Edokko: Growing Up a Foreigner in Wartime Japan. iUniverse. 2009: 115. ISBN 1-4401-4124-X. 
  5. ^ Ray, John. The illustrated history of WWII. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 2003. ISBN 978-1898801443 （英语）. 
  6. ^ Doolittle Tokyo Raiders - Official Web Site of the Raiders. www.doolittleraider.com. [2019-05-31] （英语）. 
  7. ^ Beevor, Antony. The Second World War. New York: Back Bay Books. 2012: 698. ISBN 978-0-316-02375-7. 
  8. ^ Video: B-29s Rule Jap Skies,1944/12/18 (1944). Universal Newsreel. 1944 [20 February 2012]. 
  9. ^ Morgan, Robert; Powers, Ron. The Man Who Flew The Memphis Belle. Dutton. : 279. ISBN 0-525-94610-1. 
  10. ^ Hopkins, William B. The Pacific War: The Strategy, Politics, and Players That Won the War. Zenith Imprint. 2009: 322. ISBN 0-7603-3435-8. 
  11. ^ Bradley, F.J. No Strategic Targets Left. Turner Publishing. 1999: 33. ISBN 9781563114830. 
  12. ^ Miller, Donald L.; Commager, Henry Steele. The Story of World War II. New York: Simon and Schuster. 2001: 447–449. ISBN 9780743227186. 
  13. ^ Crane, Conrad C. "The War: Firebombing (Germany & Japan)." PBS. Accessed 24 August 2014.
  14. ^ Bradley 1999，第34–35頁
  15. ^ Rodden, Robert M.; John, Floyd I.; Laurino, Richard (May 1965). Exploratory Analysis of Firestorms., Stanford Research Institute, pp. 39, 40, 53–54. Office of Civil Defense, Department of the Army, Washington D.C.
  16. ^ Freeman Dyson., Part I: A Failure of Intelligence, Technology Review (MIT), 1 November 2006 
  17. ^ David McNeill. The night hell fell from the sky. Japan Focus, 10 March 2005 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期5 December 2008..
  18. ^ Morgan, Robert; Powers, Ron. The Man Who Flew The Memphis Belle. Dutton. : 314. ISBN 0-525-94610-1. 
  19. ^ United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Summary Report (Pacific War), p. 18.
  20. ^ Bradley, F. J. No Strategic Targets Left. "Contribution of Major Fire Raids Toward Ending WWII" p. 38. Turner Publishing Company, limited edition. ISBN 1-56311-483-6.
  21. ^ 21.0 21.1 Selden, Mark. A Forgotten Holocaust: US Bombing Strategy, the Destruction of Japanese Cities & the American Way of War from World War II to Iraq. Japan Focus. May 2, 2007 [18 July 2015]. 
  22. ^ Rhodes, Richard. "The Making of the Atomic Bomb". p 599. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks (1984) ISBN 0-684-81378-5.
  23. ^ Kolko, Gabriel. The Politics of War: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1943–1945. 1990: 539–40 [1968]. 
  24. ^ Tipton, Elise K. Modern Japan: A Social and Political History. Routledge. 2002: 141. ISBN 0-585-45322-5. 
  25. ^ Miller 2001，第456頁.
  26. ^ 9 March 1945: Burning the Heart Out of the Enemy. Wired. Condé Nast Digital. 9 March 2011 [8 August 2011]. 
  27. ^ Technical Sergeant Steven Wilson. This month in history: The firebombing of Dresden. Ellsworth Air Force Base. United States Air Force. 25 February 2010 [8 August 2011]. （原始内容存档于29 September 2011）.  已忽略未知参数|df= (帮助)
  28. ^ Laurence M. Vance. Bombings Worse than Nagasaki and Hiroshima. The Future of Freedom Foundation. 14 August 2009 [8 August 2011]. 
  29. ^ Joseph Coleman. 1945 Tokyo Firebombing Left Legacy of Terror, Pain. CommonDreams.org. Associated Press. 10 March 2005 [8 August 2011]. 
  30. ^ Andre Sorensen. The Making of Urban Japan: Cities and Planning from Edo to the Twenty First Century RoutledgeCurzon, 2004. ISBN 0-415-35422-6.
  31. ^ Karacas 2000，第521–523頁
  32. ^ Aukema Justin, "Author sees parallels between prewar, nuclear indoctrination", Japan Times, 20 March 2012, p. 12.
  33. ^ Karacas, Cary. Fire Bombings and Forgotten Civilians: The Lawsuit Seeking Compensation for Victims of the Tokyo Air Raids 焼夷弾空襲と忘れられた被災市民―東京大空襲犠牲者による損害賠償請求訴訟. JapanFocus.org. 2010. ISSN 1557-4660. 
  34. ^ Japanese government says 1945 Tokyo bombing was 'against humanitarian principles'. Japan Daily News. Mainichi Shimbun. 7 May 2013 [22 November 2013]. 
  35. ^ 東京大空襲で答弁書 「人道主義に合致せず」. 47NEWS. 共同通信社. 7 May 2013 [22 November 2013]. （原始内容存档于2 December 2013）.  已忽略未知参数|df= (帮助)
  36. ^ 東京大空襲、国を提訴 遺族ら12億円賠償請求. 47NEWS. Kyodo News. 9 March 2007 [22 November 2013]. （原始内容存档于2 December 2013）.  已忽略未知参数|df= (帮助)
  37. ^ 東京大空襲の賠償認めず 「救済対象者の選別困難」. 47NEWS. Kyodo News. 14 December 2009 [22 November 2013]. （原始内容存档于2 December 2013）.  已忽略未知参数|df= (帮助)
  38. ^ 東京大空襲で原告敗訴が確定 最高裁が上告退ける. 47NEWS. Kyodo News. 9 May 2013 [22 November 2013]. （原始内容存档于11 June 2013）.  已忽略未知参数|df= (帮助)
  39. ^ Hillenbrand (2010)，第261-262頁.
  40. ^ 40.0 40.1 Hillenbrand (2010)，第263頁.
  41. ^ Hillenbrand (2010)，第274頁.
  42. ^ Tactical Mission Report 38. 21st Bomber Command. 1945. 
  43. ^ 43.0 43.1 U.S. Army Air Forces in World War II: Combat Chronology. March 1945. 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期2 June 2013. Air Force Historical Studies Office. Retrieved 3 March 2009.
  44. ^ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Sloggett, David. A Century of Air Power: The Changing Face of Warfare 1912-2012. Pen and Sword. 2013-07-18: 154. ISBN 9781781591925 （英语）. 
  45. ^ Dorr, Robert F. B-29 Superfortress Units of World War 2. Bloomsbury Publishing. 2012-12-20. ISBN 9781782008354 （英语）. 
  46. ^ Norman Polmar. The Enola Gay: The B-29 That Dropped the Atomic Bomb on Hiroshima, pp. 24. Potomac Books (2004) ISBN 1-57488-836-6.
  47. ^ American missions against Tokyo and Tokyo Bay. Pacific Wrecks. [31 December 2018]. 
  48. ^ Hillenbrand (2010)，第273-274頁.
  49. ^ The Last to Die | Military Aviation | Air & Space Magazine. Airspacemag.com. Retrieved on 5 August 2010.
  50. ^ 1942 USAAF Serial Numbers (42-91974 to 42-110188). Joebaugher.com. Retrieved on 5 August 2010.

Further reading

  • Caidin, Martin. A Torch to the Enemy: The Fire Raid on Tokyo. Balantine Books. 1960. ISBN 0-553-29926-3. D767.25.T6 C35. 
  • Coffey, Thomas M. Iron Eagle: The Turbulent Life of General Curtis LeMay. Random House Value Publishing. 1987. ISBN 0-517-55188-8. 
  • Crane, Conrad C. The cigar that brought the fire wind: Curtis LeMay and the strategic bombing of Japan. JGSDF-U.S. Army Military History Exchange. 1994. ASIN B0006PGEIQ. 
  • Frank, Richard B. Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire. Penguin. 2001. ISBN 0-14-100146-1. 
  • Grayling, A. C. Among the Dead Cities: The History and Moral Legacy of the WWII Bombing of Civilians in Germany and Japan. New York: Walker Publishing Company Inc. 2007. ISBN 0-8027-1565-6. 
  • Greer, Ron. Fire from the Sky: A Diary Over Japan. Jacksonville, Arkansas, U.S.A.: Greer Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-9768712-0-3. 
  • Guillian, Robert. I Saw Tokyo Burning: An Eyewitness Narrative from Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima. Jove Pubns. 1982. ISBN 0-86721-223-3. 
  • Hillenbrand, Laura. Unbroken. New York: Random House. 2010. ISBN 978-1-4000-6416-8. 
  • Hoyt, Edwin P. Inferno: The Fire Bombing of Japan, March 9 – August 15, 1945. Madison Books. 2000. ISBN 1-56833-149-5. 
  • Jablonski, Edward. Air War Against Japan. Airwar Outraged Skies/Wings of Fire. An Illustrated history of Air power in the Second World War. Doubleday. 1971. ASIN B000NGPMSQ. 
  • Karacas, Cary. Place, Public Memory and the Tokyo Air Raids. The Geographical Review. 2010, 100 (4). 
  • Lemay, Curtis E.; Bill Yenne. Superfortress: The Story of the B-29 and American Air Power. McGraw-Hill Companies. 1988. ISBN 0-07-037164-4. 
  • McGowen, Tom. Air Raid!: The Bombing Campaign. Brookfield, Connecticut, U.S.A.: Twenty-First Century Books. 2001. ISBN 0-7613-1810-0. 
  • Morgan, Robert; Powers, Ron. The Man Who Flew The Memphis Belle: Memoir of a WWII Bomber Pilot. Dutton. 2001. ISBN 0-525-94610-1. 
  • Shannon, Donald H. United States air strategy and doctrine as employed in the strategic bombing of Japan. U.S. Air University, Air War College. 1976. ASIN B0006WCQ86. 
  • Smith, Jim; Malcolm Mcconnell. The Last Mission: The Secret History of World War II's Final Battle. Broadway. 2002. ISBN 0-7679-0778-7. 
  • Tillman, Barrett. Whirlwind: The Air War Against Japan, 1942–1945. Simon & Schuster. 2010. ISBN 978-1-4165-8440-7. 
  • Werrell, Kenneth P. Blankets of Fire. Smithsonian. 1998. ISBN 1-56098-871-1. 
 
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