性 (生物学)
根據生殖特徵劃分的不同群體
此条目需要补充更多来源。 (2022年7月6日) |
性（英语：Sex）是一种特征，其可决定有性生殖生物体产生雄性或是雌性的配子。[1][2][3]于有性生殖过程中的雄性和雌性配子会融合，而形成受精卵，之后受精卵发育成为一继承父母双方特征的后代。传统上产生较小、更具移动性配子（精子）的生物体被称为雄性，而产生较大、非移动性配子（卵细胞）的生物体被称为雌性。[4]而可同时产生两种配子的生物体则为雌雄同体。[3][5]
于非雌雄同体物种，其中个体的性别是透过几个生物性别决定系统中的一种来决定。大多数哺乳动物物种都具有XY性别决定系统，其中雄性通常携带一X和一Y染色体 (XY)，雌性通常携带两条X染色体 (XX)。其他的动物染色体性别决定系统包含有鸟类的ZW性别决定系统和昆虫的X0性别决定系统。另有与前述不同的环境性别决定系统，如爬虫类和甲壳动物的温度-性别决定系统。[6]
物种的雄性和雌性可能是外观上相似（性单态性）或是有外观上的差异（两性异形）。大多数鸟类和哺乳动物是两性异形物种，个体性别通常透过观察其性别特征来识别。性选择（或称择偶）可加速两性之间的差异进化。
"雄性"和"雌性"通常不适用于无性分化的物种，其个体是同构的（性单态性），且配子是同配生殖的（大小和形状难以区分），例如称为石莼的绿藻。但有些物种个体之间存在一些功能差异（例如真菌），[7]其繁殖方式为有性生殖中的交配类型。[8]
性系统
性系统是一物种中的生物体，其内部雄性和雌性功能的配置。[9]
动物
大约95%的动物物种有其独立的雄性和雌性个体，称为雌雄异体。大约有5%的动物物种是雌雄同体。[9]这种低百分比归因于将种类众多的昆虫包含在内，昆虫中并无雌雄同体存在。[10]大约99%的脊椎动物是雌雄异体，所余1%的雌雄同体中，几乎全是鱼类。[11]
植物
大多数植物具有两种性别，[12]（p. 212）或是雌雄同体（雄蕊和雌蕊都在同一朵花上），或是单性同株。[13][14]在雌雄异株的物种中，雄性和雌性生长于不同株上。[15]约有5%的开花植物是雌雄异株的，由5,000之多的独立品种演化而来。[16]雌雄异株在裸子植物中很常见，约占65%，但大多数针叶树是单性同株。[17]
松树及其他针叶树的球花，图左含雌性性器官，图右含雄性性器官。
性的进化
人们普遍认为异配生殖是由同配生殖演化而来，[18]且异配生殖在不同的真核生物群体中（如原生生物、藻类、植物和动物）各自独立进化过几次。[10]异配生殖的演化与雄性和雌性的起源是同一件事。[19]这也是迈向两性异形的第一步，[20]且影响到各种性别差异的演化。[21]
然而异配生殖的演化并没留下任何化石证据，[22]迄2006年尚无遗传证据证明性别和交配类间的演化连结。[23]目前还不清楚是异配生殖首先导致雌雄同体的进化，或是雌雄异体的进化。[12]（p. 213）
但一件来自12亿年前，称为Bangiomorpha pubescens的红藻门化石，为雄性和雌性生殖的分化提供最古老的化石记录，显示性别在真核生物中很早就已进化。[24]
最初的性形式是体外受精。而我们所知的繁殖形式 - 体内受精，其演化发生在后，[25]是脊椎动物在陆地上出现后才成为主流。[26]
性别比例
本节摘自性别比。
性别比是整个群体中雄性与雌性所占的比例。费雪原理解释说，在有性繁殖的物种中出于进化原因，性别比例通常约为1:1。[27][28]然而有许多物种会周期性或永久性偏离此种均匀比例。例子包括单性生殖物种、周期性交配的生物体（如蚜虫）及一些真社会性的黄蜂、花蜂类、蚂蚁和白蚁。[29]
人类学家和人口统计学家对人类性别比特别感兴趣。在人类社会中，出生时的性别比可能会因母亲生产时的年龄[30]以及性别选择性堕胎和杀婴等因素而造成相当大的偏差。接触农药和其他环境污染物也可能是重要的影响因素。[31]截至2014年，全球出生性别比估计为107男孩相对于100女孩（1,000名男孩：934名女孩）。[32]
参见
参考文献
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延伸阅读
- Arnqvist G, Rowe L. Sexual conflict. Princeton University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-691-12217-5.
- 布鲁斯·艾伯茨, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P. Molecular Biology of the Cell 4th. New York: Garland Science. 2002. ISBN 978-0-8153-3218-3.
- Ellis H. Psychology of Sex. London: W. Heinemann Medical Books. 1933. N.B.: One of many books by this pioneering authority on aspects of human sexuality.
- Gilbert SF. Developmental Biology 6th. Sinauer Associates, Inc. 2000. ISBN 978-0-87893-243-6.
- Maynard-Smith J. The Evolution of Sex . Cambridge University Press. 1978. ISBN 978-0-521-29302-0.
外部链接
- Human Sexual Differentiation (Archived (2010)) – Geneva Foundation for Medical Education and Research (GFMER)
- Sexual Reproduction and the Evolution of Sex (Archived (2023)) − Nature journal (2008)
