环丙沙星

环丙沙星INN:ciprofloxacin)是一种喹诺酮类抗生素[4]用于治疗多种病原细菌感染 - 包括骨骼和关节感染、腹腔感染、某些类型的感染性腹泻、呼吸道感染、皮肤感染、伤寒泌尿道感染等。[4]对于某些感染,它可与其他抗生素一起使用。[4]给药方式有口服给药眼药水、耳滴剂或是静脉注射[4][5]

环丙沙星
ciprofloxacin molecule
环丙沙星的化学结构
ciprofloxacin zwitterion molecule
环丙沙星两性离子三维结构
临床资料
商品名英语Drug nomenclatureCiloxan、Cipro、Neofloxin及其他
AHFS/Drugs.comMonograph
MedlinePlusa688016
核准状况
怀孕分级
给药途径口服给药, 静脉注射, 外用药物 (耳滴剂, 眼药水)
药物类别英语Drug class喹诺酮类药物
ATC码
法律规范状态
法律规范
药物动力学数据
生物利用度70%[3]
血浆蛋白结合率30%[3]
药物代谢肝脏
生物半衰期3.5小时[3]
排泄途径
识别信息
  • 1-cyclopropyl-6-fluoro-4-oxo-7-(piperazin-1-yl)-quinoline-3-carboxylic acid
CAS号85721-33-1  checkY
PubChem CID
DrugBank
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
ChEBI
ChEMBL
NIAID ChemDB
CompTox Dashboard英语CompTox Chemicals Dashboard (EPA)
ECHA InfoCard100.123.026 编辑维基数据链接
化学信息
化学式C17H18FN3O3
摩尔质量331.35 g·mol−1
3D模型(JSmol英语JSmol
  • C1CNCCN1c(c2)c(F)cc3c2N(C4CC4)C=C(C3=O)C(=O)O
  • InChI=1S/C17H18FN3O3/c18-13-7-11-14(8-15(13)20-5-3-19-4-6-20)21(10-1-2-10)9-12(16(11)22)17(23)24/h7-10,19H,1-6H2,(H,23,24) checkY
  • Key:MYSWGUAQZAJSOK-UHFFFAOYSA-N checkY

使用后常见的副作用有恶心呕吐腹泻[4]严重的副作用有肌腱断裂英语tendon rupture、产生幻觉和神经损伤的风险增加。[4]重症肌无力患者的肌肉无力会恶化。[4]此药物的副作用发生率似乎高于某些抗生素(例如头孢菌素),但低于其他抗生素(例如克林霉素)。[6]在动物身上的研究结果,引发人们对个体于怀孕期间使用会伤害胎儿的担忧。[7]然而少数服用该药物的妇女所产下的婴儿并未发现任何问题。[7]母乳哺育期间使用似乎对于婴儿并无安全上的顾虑。[4]此药物是第二代喹诺酮类药物,是种具广谱活性的抗生素英语broad-spectrum antibiotic,为通常有效的杀菌药[4][8][9]

环丙沙星于1980年取得专利,并于1987年由拜耳公司引入医疗用途。[10][11][12]它已列入世界卫生组织基本药物标准清单之中。[13][14]世界卫生组织(WHO)将环丙沙星列为对人类医学不可或缺的药物。[15]市场上有其通用名药物流通。[4][16]此药物于2022年在美国最常使用处方药中排名第181,开立的处方笺数量超过200万张。[17][18]

医疗用途

环丙沙星用于治疗范围广泛的感染,包括骨骼和关节感染、心内膜炎、细菌性肠胃炎、恶性外耳炎腺鼠疫、呼吸道感染、蜂窝性组织炎、泌尿道感染、摄护腺炎炭疽病软性下疳[4]

环丙沙星仅可治疗病原细菌感染,而不能治疗普通感冒等由病毒引起的感染。对于某些病症 - 包括急性鼻窦炎、下呼吸道感染和无并发症淋病,环丙沙星并非第一线药物。

环丙沙星在不同主要医学会所发布治疗严重感染的指南中占有重要地位,特别是那些由革兰氏阴性菌(包括绿脓杆菌)引起的感染。例如美国传染病学会英语Infectious Diseases Society of America推荐环丙沙星与甲硝唑联合,是治疗成人社区型腹部感染的几种第一线抗生素方案之一。[19]此药物也在治疗急性肾盂肾炎英语pyelonephritis、复杂性或院内感染泌尿道感染、急性或慢性摄护腺炎、[20]某些类型的心内膜炎、[21]某些皮肤感染、[22]和人工关节感感染的指南中也占有重要地位。[23]

治疗指南对其他情况的规定较为严格。对于较轻微的感染,通常建议优先使用较旧、作用范围较窄的药物作为第一线药物,以减少产生喹诺酮类药物抗药性的机率。例如美国传染病学会建议仅在已证明或预期对呋喃妥因复方新诺明(甲氧芐啶/磺胺甲𫫇唑)等作用范围较窄药物具抗药性的病例中改用环丙沙星和其他喹诺酮类药物治疗泌尿道感染。[24]欧洲泌尿外科学会英语European Association of Urology推荐环丙沙星作为治疗无并发症泌尿道感染的替代方案,但警告"必须考虑不良事件发生的可能性"。[20]

虽然监管机构批准使用环丙沙星于治疗呼吸道感染,但大多数治疗指南不建议采用,部分原因是其对常见呼吸道病原体肺炎链球菌的活性有限。[25][26][27]美国传染病学会推荐使用治疗呼吸道感染的喹诺酮类药物,如左氧氟沙星对这种病原体具有更强的活性,作为治疗有重大合并症的患者和需要住院治疗的社区型肺炎的第一线药物 。同样的,不建议使用环丙沙星作为急性鼻窦炎的第一线药物。[28][29]

环丙沙星在许多国家被批准用于治疗淋病,但由于病菌的抗药性已经发展,这种疗法已被广泛认为过时。[30][31][32]

怀孕

专家对已发表有关怀孕期间使用环丙沙星的经验数据进行审查,结论为怀孕期间使用的治疗剂量不太可能造成重大胎儿致畸风险,但数据不足以表示风险并未存在。[33]在怀孕早期接触包括左氧氟沙星在内的喹诺酮类药物不会增加死产早产、出生缺陷或低出生体重的风险。[34]

母乳哺育

据报导,喹诺酮类药物会进入母乳中,而被母乳哺育的婴儿摄取。[35][36]

儿童

由于此药物有对肌肉骨骼系统造成永久性损伤的风险,因此美国食品药物管理局(FDA)仅核准使用口服和静脉注射剂于两种适应症:

  1. 吸入性炭疽病(暴露后)[37]
  2. 大肠杆菌引起的复杂性泌尿道感染和肾盂肾炎,[38]但不得作为第一线药物。

活性范围

此药物的活性范围包括大多数导致社区型肺炎、支气管炎、泌尿道感染和肠胃炎的病原细菌菌株。[39]环丙沙星对革兰氏阴性菌(如大肠杆菌、流感嗜血杆菌肺炎克雷伯氏菌嗜肺性退伍军人杆菌卡他莫拉菌英语Moraxella catarrhalis奇异变形杆菌英语Proteus mirabilis和绿脓杆菌)特别有效,但对革兰氏阳性菌(如对甲氧西林敏感的细菌 - 金黄色葡萄球菌肺炎链球菌粪肠球菌英语Enterococcus faecalis)的作用则较新型的喹诺酮类药物为差。[40]

病原细菌抗药性

由于环丙沙星被广泛用于治疗本可用较旧、作用范围较窄的抗生素即可轻易治愈的轻微感染,导致许多细菌已对其产生抗药性,使其效力远不如原本应有的水平。[41][42]

在治疗过程中,病原细菌对环丙沙星和其他喹诺酮类药物的抗药性也可能会迅速发展。

迄2002年,喹诺酮类药物已成为成人最常使用的第一类抗生素。在美国,有近一半 (42%) 的处方用于治疗未经FDA批准的疾病,例如急性支气管炎、中耳炎和急性上呼吸道感染。[43]

禁忌症

使用此药物的禁忌症有:[2]

  • 同时服用替扎尼定
  • 对任何喹诺酮类药物会过敏的个体
  • 被诊断为重症肌无力的个体(其肌肉无力可能会因此加剧)[44]

环丙沙星也被认为禁用于儿童(上述适应症除外)、怀孕期、哺乳期母亲、癫痫或其他癫痫发作的个体。

患有马凡氏症候群埃勒斯-当洛二氏症候群的个体须谨慎使用。[45]

不良影响

不良反应可能会发生于肌腱、肌肉、关节、神经和中枢神经系统[46][47]

此药物不良反应的发生率似乎高于某些抗生素(例如头孢菌素),但低于其他抗生素(例如克林霉素)。[6]一些研究发现此药物不良反应发生率较其他抗生素为高,[48][49]而其他研究则发现并无差异。[50]

根据临床试验数据,大部分不良事件的严重性仅为轻度或中度。副作用通常在患者停止服用药物后不久便会缓解,不需进行额外医疗介入。.[2]但有些不良影响是永久性的。[46]

肌腱问题

在美国,由于环丙沙星会增加肌腱炎和肌腱断裂的风险,特别是对于年龄超过60岁的个体、同时使用皮质类固醇的个体以及接受过肾、肺或心脏移植的个体,[51]而被附加黑框警告。肌腱断裂可能发生在治疗期间,甚至停药后几个月。[52]

心律不整

喹诺酮类药物(包括环丙沙星在内)会增加心脏毒性英语Cardiotoxicity风险,导致如QT间期延长、尖端扭转型室性心律过速英语torsades de pointes、心室心律不整和心脏骤停(猝逝)。[53][47]

神经系统

由于环丙沙星具有亲脂性,因此能穿过血脑屏障[54]FDA于2013年增列标签,警告此药物对神经系统的可能影响。

喹诺酮类药物已被通报可导致肌阵挛[5]尤其是环丙沙星与之有关,而衍生出"环丙阵挛(ciproclonus)"这个名词。[8]

癌症

环丙沙星在8种体外快速基因毒性筛选实验中,有6种显示出阳性结果,但实际在体内实验中并未表现出基因毒性。[2]

其他

另一关于环丙沙星的黑框警告是此药物不应用于重症肌无力患者,因为可能会加剧肌无力,从而导致呼吸问题,会发生个体死亡或需使用呼吸器支持的情况。已知喹诺酮类药物可阻断神经肌肉传导。有医界人士担心喹诺酮类药物(包括环丙沙星在内)会影响幼儿的软骨发育。[2]

过量

过量服用环丙沙星可能会导致可逆的肾毒性。药物过量的治疗包括透过诱导呕吐,或洗胃,以及服用含有或钙的抗酸剂以降低药物吸收。利用血液透析腹膜透析所排除的环丙沙星会少于10%。[55]

交互作用

环丙沙星与某些食物和几种其他药物相互作用,会导致体内一种或两种药物的血清水平或分布出现不良增加或是减少。

英国药物安全委员会英语Committee on Safety of Medicines和FDA警告称,当非类固醇抗发炎药(NSAID)与喹诺酮类药物联合使用时,可能透过协同增强对γ-胺基丁酸|GABA受体的拮抗作用,而增加中枢神经系统兴奋性,[2][56]中枢神经系统的不良反应(包括癫痫发作风险)会因而增加。[57][58]

环丙沙星是细胞色素P450CYP1A2CYP2D6CYP3A4三种的有效抑制剂。[59]

作用机转

环丙沙星是一种具广谱活性的喹诺酮类抗生素,可对一些革兰氏阳性菌及许多革兰氏阴性菌发生作用。[60]环丙沙星透过抑制II型拓扑异构酶DNA旋转酶)和IV型拓扑异构酶 ,[61][62]干扰病原细菌DNA的复制和分离,导致DNA双股断裂,进而抑制细菌的生长和繁殖。

药物动力学

用于全身性的环丙沙星有速释片、缓释片、口服混悬液及静脉给药溶液。环丙沙星于静脉注射一小时后会迅速分布到组织中,[2]某些组织中的浓度会超过血清中的浓度。对于年长及脏功能不佳的个体须作剂量调节。[2]

历史

 
产自乌克兰的250毫克环丙沙星口服锭。

日本杏林制药株式会社(Kyorin Seiyaku Kabushiki Kaisha)于1979年提出的专利申请书中揭露其已发现具强力抗菌能力的诺氟沙星[63]拜耳公司将诺氟沙星的结构改变,[64][65]于1983年发布其已发明比诺氟沙星具更强抗菌效力的环丙沙星。

环丙沙星口服锭于1987年10月获准上市,[66]仅比诺氟沙星晚一年。[67]静脉注射剂型也1991年问世。环丙沙星的销售额在2001年达到高峰,约为20亿欧元,拜耳的专利于2004年到期,此后此药物的年销售额平均约为2亿欧元。[68][69]

社会与文化

市售配方

用于全身性的环丙沙星有速释片、缓释片、口服混悬液和静脉输注溶液。它可以作为眼药水和耳滴剂(外用药物)。此外,环丙沙星还可与地塞米松塞来昔布氢羟肾上腺皮质素醋酸氟轻松等药物组成复方药[70]

研究

随著环丙沙星受到广泛使用,许多病原细菌已对其产生抗药性。科学家们为应对这种问题均致力开发新的抗生素,这些新药物不仅能有效对抗已产生抗药性的细菌,甚至也显示出在治疗病毒感染方面的潜力。[71]

参考文献

  1. ^ Ciprofloxacin Use During Pregnancy. Drugs.com. 2019-01-07 [2019-12-19]. 
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Cipro- ciprofloxacin hydrochloride tablet, film coated; Cipro- ciprofloxacin kit. DailyMed. 2023-01-31 [2024-02-09]. 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Zhanel GG, Fontaine S, Adam H, Schurek K, Mayer M, Noreddin AM, Gin AS, Rubinstein E, Hoban DJ. A Review of New Fluoroquinolones: Focus on their Use in Respiratory Tract Infections. Treatments in Respiratory Medicine. 2006, 5 (6): 437–465. PMID 17154673. S2CID 26955572. doi:10.2165/00151829-200605060-00009. 
  4. ^ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 Ciprofloxacin Hydrochloride. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. [2015-08-23]. (原始内容存档于2015-09-23). 
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 Ciprofloxacin Hcl Drops. WebMD. 2018-02-22 [2018-02-22]. 
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 Heidelbaugh JJ, Holmstrom H. The perils of prescribing fluoroquinolones. The Journal of Family Practice. April 2013, 62 (4): 191–197. PMID 23570031. 
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 Prescribing medicines in pregnancy database. Government of Australia. 2015-08-23. (原始内容存档于2014-04-08). 
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 Ball P. Quinolone generations: natural history or natural selection?. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. July 2000,. 46 Suppl T1: 17–24. PMID 10997595. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jac.a020889 . 
  9. ^ Oliphant CM, Green GM. Quinolones: a comprehensive review. American Family Physician. February 2002, 65 (3): 455–464. PMID 1185862. doi:10.1016/s0022-5347(17)67120-9. 
  10. ^ Oxford Handbook of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology. OUP Oxford. 2009: 56. ISBN 978-0-19-103962-1. (原始内容存档于2017-09-08). 
  11. ^ Fischer J, Ganellin CR. Analogue-based Drug Discovery. John Wiley & Sons. 2006: 500. ISBN 978-3-527-60749-5. 
  12. ^ Contemporary Chemical Approaches for Green and Sustainable Drugs,2022. Elsevier. [2024-11-22]. ISBN 978-0-12-822248-5. 
  13. ^ World Health Organization. World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2019. hdl:10665/325771 . WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. 
  14. ^ World Health Organization. World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 22nd list (2021). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2021. hdl:10665/345533 . WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2021.02. 
  15. ^ World Health Organization. Critically important antimicrobials for human medicine 6th revision. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2019. ISBN 978-92-4-151552-8. hdl:10665/312266 . 
  16. ^ Hamilton RJ. Tarascon pharmacopoeia 15th. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. 2014: 85. ISBN 978-1-284-05671-6. (原始内容存档于2017-09-08). 
  17. ^ The Top 300 of 2022. ClinCalc. [2024-08-30]. (原始内容存档于2024-08-30). 
  18. ^ Ciprofloxacin Drug Usage Statistics, United States, 2013 - 2022. ClinCalc. [2024-08-30]. 
  19. ^ Solomkin JS, Mazuski JE, Bradley JS, Rodvold KA, Goldstein EJ, Baron EJ, O'Neill PJ, Chow AW, Dellinger EP, Eachempati SR, Gorbach S, Hilfiker M, May AK, Nathens AB, Sawyer RG, Bartlett JG. Diagnosis and management of complicated intra-abdominal infection in adults and children: guidelines by the Surgical Infection Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical Infectious Diseases. January 2010, 50 (2): 133–64. PMID 20034345. doi:10.1086/649554 . 
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 Grabe M, Bjerklund-Johansen TE, Botto H, Çek M, Naber KG, Pickard RS, Tenke P, Wagenlehner F, Wullt B. Guidelines on Urological Infections (PDF). European Association of Urology. 2013. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2013-12-31). 
  21. ^ Baddour LM, Wilson WR, Bayer AS, Fowler VG, Bolger AF, Levison ME, Ferrieri P, Gerber MA, Tani LY, Gewitz MH, Tong DC, Steckelberg JM, Baltimore RS, Shulman ST, Burns JC, Falace DA, Newburger JW, Pallasch TJ, Takahashi M, Taubert KA. Infective endocarditis: diagnosis, antimicrobial therapy, and management of complications: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, and the Councils on Clinical Cardiology, Stroke, and Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, American Heart Association: endorsed by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Circulation. June 2005, 111 (23): e394–434. PMID 15956145. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.165564 . 
  22. ^ Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, Everett ED, Dellinger P, Goldstein EJ, Gorbach SL, Hirschmann JV, Kaplan EL, Montoya JG, Wade JC. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft-tissue infections. Clinical Infectious Diseases. November 2005, 41 (10): 1373–406. PMID 16231249. doi:10.1086/497143 . 
  23. ^ Osmon DR, Berbari EF, Berendt AR, Lew D, Zimmerli W, Steckelberg JM, Rao N, Hanssen A, Wilson WR. Diagnosis and management of prosthetic joint infection: clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical Infectious Diseases. January 2013, 56 (1): e1–e25. PMID 23223583. doi:10.1093/cid/cis803 . 
  24. ^ Gupta K, Hooton TM, Naber KG, Wullt B, Colgan R, Miller LG, Moran GJ, Nicolle LE, Raz R, Schaeffer AJ, Soper DE. International clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of acute uncomplicated cystitis and pyelonephritis in women: A 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the European Society for Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. Clinical Infectious Diseases. March 2011, 52 (5): e103–20. PMID 21292654. doi:10.1093/cid/ciq257 . 
  25. ^ Hoogkamp-Korstanje JA, Klein SJ. Ciprofloxacin in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. September 1986, 18 (3): 407–413. PMID 3490468. doi:10.1093/jac/18.3.407. 
  26. ^ Vardakas KZ, Siempos II, Grammatikos A, Athanassa Z, Korbila IP, Falagas ME. Respiratory fluoroquinolones for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Canadian Medical Association Journal. December 2008, 179 (12): 1269–1277. PMC 2585120 . PMID 19047608. doi:10.1503/cmaj.080358. 
  27. ^ Donaldson PM, Pallett AP, Carroll MP. Ciprofloxacin in general practice. BMJ. May 1994, 308 (6941): 1437. PMC 2540361 . PMID 8019264. doi:10.1136/bmj.308.6941.1437. 
  28. ^ Karageorgopoulos DE, Giannopoulou KP, Grammatikos AP, Dimopoulos G, Falagas ME. Fluoroquinolones compared with beta-lactam antibiotics for the treatment of acute bacterial sinusitis: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Canadian Medical Association Journal. March 2008, 178 (7): 845–854. PMC 2267830 . PMID 18362380. doi:10.1503/cmaj.071157. 
  29. ^ Chow AW, Benninger MS, Brook I, Brozek JL, Goldstein EJ, Hicks LA, Pankey GA, Seleznick M, Volturo G, Wald ER, File TM. IDSA clinical practice guideline for acute bacterial rhinosinusitis in children and adults. Clinical Infectious Diseases. April 2012, 54 (8): e72–e112. PMID 22438350. S2CID 1946193. doi:10.1093/cid/cir1043 . 
  30. ^ Gonococcal Isolate Surveillance Project (GISP) Annual Report – 2003 (PDF). U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). November 2004 [2009-08-31]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2009-04-24). 
  31. ^ Young H, Palmer J, Winter A. Ciprofloxacin resistant gonorrhoea: the situation in Scotland and implications for therapy (PDF). SCIEH Weekly Report. 2003-07-22, 37 [2009-08-30]. ISSN 1357-4493. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2011-07-22). 
  32. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Update to CDC's sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2006: fluoroquinolones no longer recommended for treatment of gonococcal infections (PDF). MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. April 2007, 56 (14): 332–336. PMID 17431378. 
  33. ^ Barolin GS. [Illness, anxiety and the physician. An example from neurology and neurorehabilitation]. Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift. May 1995, 141 (22): 512–25. PMC 1801454 . PMID 1801454. 
  34. ^ Ziv A, Masarwa R, Perlman A, Ziv D, Matok I. Pregnancy Outcomes Following Exposure to Quinolone Antibiotics – a Systematic-Review and Meta-Analysis. Pharm. Res. March 2018, 35 (5): 109. PMID 29582196. S2CID 4724821. doi:10.1007/s11095-018-2383-8. 
  35. ^ Shin HC, Kim JC, Chung MK, Jung YH, Kim JS, Lee MK, Amidon GL. Fetal and maternal tissue distribution of the new fluoroquinolone DW-116 in pregnant rats. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Toxicology & Pharmacology. September 2003, 136 (1): 95–102. PMID 14522602. doi:10.1016/j.cca.2003.08.004. 
  36. ^ Dan M, Weidekamm E, Sagiv R, Portmann R, Zakut H. Penetration of fleroxacin into breast milk and pharmacokinetics in lactating women. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. February 1993, 37 (2): 293–6. PMC 187655 . PMID 8452360. doi:10.1128/AAC.37.2.293 . 
  37. ^ Murphy D. Cipro Labeling Revision Letter 08/30/2000 Supplement 008 New or Modified Indication (PDF). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2000-08-30. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2012-10-18). 
  38. ^ Albrecht R. Cipro Labeling Revision Letter 03/25/2004 Supplement 049 Patient Population Altered (PDF). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2004-03-25 [2009-09-07]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2012-10-18). 
  39. ^ Johannsen EC, Sabatine MS. Pharmcards review cards for medical students 4th. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer|Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2010. ISBN 978-0-7817-8741-3. OCLC 893525059. [页码请求]
  40. ^ Hooper D. Fluoroquinolones. UpToDate. 2018-02-12 [2018-02-26]. 
  41. ^ Vatopoulos AC, Kalapothaki V, Legakis NJ. Bacterial resistance to ciprofloxacin in Greece: results from the National Electronic Surveillance System. Greek Network for the Surveillance of Antimicrobial Resistance. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1999, 5 (3): 471–6. PMC 2640758 . PMID 10341191. doi:10.3201/eid0503.990325. 
  42. ^ Bacterial resistance prompts concern among health officials. Minnesota Department of Health. 2009-02-26. (原始内容存档于2009-03-05). 
  43. ^ Linder JA, Huang ES, Steinman MA, Gonzales R, Stafford RS. Fluoroquinolone prescribing in the United States: 1995 to 2002. The American Journal of Medicine. March 2005, 118 (3): 259–68. PMID 15745724. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.09.015. 
  44. ^ Thai T, Salisbury BH, Zito PM. Ciprofloxacin. StatPearls. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing. 2022 [2022-01-31]. PMID 30571075. 
  45. ^ LeMaire SA, Zhang L, Zhang NS, Luo W, Barrish JP, Zhang Q, Coselli JS, Shen YH. Ciprofloxacin accelerates aortic enlargement and promotes dissection and rupture in Marfan mice. The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. March 2022, 163 (3): e215–e226. PMID 34586071. S2CID 224937717. doi:10.1016/j.jtcvs.2020.09.069 . 
  46. ^ 46.0 46.1 Drug Safety and Availability – FDA Drug Safety Communication: FDA updates warnings for oral and injectable fluoroquinolone antibiotics due to disabling side effects. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). [2018-01-10]. 
  47. ^ 47.0 47.1 Liu X, Ma J, Huang L, Zhu W. Fluoroquinolones increase the risk of serious arrhythmias: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). November 2017, 96 (44): e8273. PMC 5682775 . PMID 29095256. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000008273. 
  48. ^ Brown KA, Khanafer N, Daneman N, Fisman DN. Meta-analysis of antibiotics and the risk of community-associated Clostridium difficile infection. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. May 2013, 57 (5): 2326–32. PMC 3632900 . PMID 23478961. doi:10.1128/AAC.02176-12. 
  49. ^ Falagas ME, Matthaiou DK, Vardakas KZ. Fluoroquinolones vs beta-lactams for empirical treatment of immunocompetent patients with skin and soft tissue infections: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. December 2006, 81 (12): 1553–66. PMID 17165634. doi:10.4065/81.12.1553. 
  50. ^ Knottnerus BJ, Grigoryan L, Geerlings SE, Moll van Charante EP, Verheij TJ, Kessels AG, ter Riet G. Comparative effectiveness of antibiotics for uncomplicated urinary tract infections: network meta-analysis of randomized trials. Family Practice. December 2012, 29 (6): 659–70. PMID 22516128. doi:10.1093/fampra/cms029 . 
  51. ^ Stephenson AL, Wu W, Cortes D, Rochon PA. Tendon Injury and Fluoroquinolone Use: A Systematic Review. Drug Saf. September 2013, 36 (9): 709–21. PMID 23888427. S2CID 24948660. doi:10.1007/s40264-013-0089-8. 
  52. ^ Saint F, Gueguen G, Biserte J, Fontaine C, Mazeman E. [Rupture of the patellar ligament one month after treatment with fluoroquinolone] [Rupture of the patellar ligament one month after treatment with fluoroquinolone]. Revue de Chirurgie Orthopedique et Reparatrice de l'Appareil Moteur. September 2000, 86 (5): 495–7. PMID 10970974 (法语). 
  53. ^ Gorelik E, Masarwa R, Perlman A, Rotshild V, Abbasi M, Muszkat M, Matok I. Fluoroquinolones and Cardiovascular Risk: A Systematic Review, Meta-analysis and Network Meta-analysis. Drug Saf. October 2018, 42 (4): 529–538. PMID 30368737. S2CID 53105534. doi:10.1007/s40264-018-0751-2. 
  54. ^ Babar SM. SIADH associated with ciprofloxacin. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy. October 2013, 47 (10): 1359–63. PMID 24259701. S2CID 36759747. doi:10.1177/1060028013502457. 
  55. ^ Cipro Labeling Revision 04/06/2009 Supplement 073 (PDF). U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2009-04-06 [2009-09-08]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2010-07-05). 
  56. ^ Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 5 Infections. British National Formulary (BNF 57). BMJ Group and RPS Publishing. 2009. ISBN 978-0-85369-845-6. 
  57. ^ De Sarro A, De Sarro G. Adverse reactions to fluoroquinolones. an overview on mechanistic aspects. Current Medicinal Chemistry. March 2001, 8 (4): 371–84. PMID 11172695. doi:10.2174/0929867013373435. 
  58. ^ Brouwers JR. Drug interactions with quinolone antibacterials. Drug Safety. 1992, 7 (4): 268–81. PMID 1524699. S2CID 6701544. doi:10.2165/00002018-199207040-00003. 
  59. ^ Haddad A, Davis M, Lagman R. The pharmacological importance of cytochrome CYP3A4 in the palliation of symptoms: review and recommendations for avoiding adverse drug interactions. Supportive Care in Cancer. March 2007, 15 (3): 251–7. PMID 17139496. S2CID 9186457. doi:10.1007/s00520-006-0127-5. 
  60. ^ First aid for the USMLE step 2 CK  6th. McGraw-Hill Medical. June 2007. ISBN 978-0-07-148795-5. 
  61. ^ Drlica K, Zhao X. DNA gyrase, topoisomerase IV, and the 4-quinolones. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. September 1997, 61 (3): 377–92. PMC 232616 . PMID 9293187. doi:10.1128/mmbr.61.3.377-392.1997. 
  62. ^ Pommier Y, Leo E, Zhang H, Marchand C. DNA topoisomerases and their poisoning by anticancer and antibacterial drugs. Chemistry & Biology //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7316379 |PMC=缺少标题 (帮助). May 2010, 17 (5): 421–33. PMC 7316379 . PMID 20534341. doi:10.1016/j.chembiol.2010.04.012 . 
  63. ^ Khan MY, Gruninger RP, Nelson SM, Klicker RE. Comparative in vitro activity of norfloxacin (MK-0366) and ten other oral antimicrobial agents against urinary bacterial isolates. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. May 1982, 21 (5): 848–51. PMC 182027 . PMID 6213200. doi:10.1128/AAC.21.5.848. 
  64. ^ Patent US4547503 – 1-Cyclopropyl-6-fluoro-1,4-dihydro-4-oxo-7-[4-(oxo-alkyl)-1-piperazinyl ... – Google Patents. 
  65. ^ Patent US4544658 – 1-Cyclopropyl-6-fluoro-1,4-dihydro-4-oxo-7-(alkyl-1-piperazinyl)quinoline-3 ... – Google Patents. 
  66. ^ Orange Book: Approved Drug Products with Therapeutic Equivalence Evaluations N019537. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). [2014-01-05]. (原始内容存档于2014-01-06). 
  67. ^ Orange Book Detail Record Search. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (原始内容存档于2014-01-06). 
  68. ^ www.sec.gov. (原始内容存档于2017-07-09). 
  69. ^ Dan Prochilo for Law360 2013-11-18 Bayer's $74M Cipro Pay-For-Delay Deal Approved In Calif. 互联网档案馆存档,存档日期2015-03-18.
  70. ^ Otovel (- ciprofloxacin and fluocinolone acetonide solution. DailyMed. 2019-09-12 [2024-02-09]. 
  71. ^ Zhang GF, Liu X, Zhang S, Pan B, Liu ML. Ciprofloxacin derivatives and their antibacterial activities. European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. February 2018, 146: 599–612. PMID 29407984. doi:10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.01.078. 

外部链接

Template:Piperazines Template:GABA receptor modulators