對乙酰氨基酚
對乙酰氨基酚(英語:Acetaminophen、Paracetamol、簡稱:APAP),又稱乙醯胺酚[12]、撲熱息痛,是一種常見的非阿片類鎮痛、退燒藥,主要用於退燒和緩解輕中度疼痛。[13][14][15] 作為一種非處方藥,它在全球範圍內廣泛應用,常見品牌包括泰諾(Tylenol)和必理通(Panadol)。
臨床資料 | |||
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讀音 | Paracetamol: /ˌpærəˈsitəmɒl/ Acetaminophen: i/əˌsiːtəˈmɪnəfɪn/ | ||
商品名 | 泰諾,及其他[1][2] | ||
其他名稱 | N-acetyl-para-aminophenol (APAP) | ||
AHFS/Drugs.com | Monograph | ||
MedlinePlus | a681004 | ||
核准狀況 |
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懷孕分級 |
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給藥途徑 | 口服給藥、頰部給藥、直腸塞劑、靜脈注射 | ||
ATC碼 | |||
法律規範狀態 | |||
法律規範 | |||
藥物動力學數據 | |||
生物利用度 | 63–89%[3]:73 | ||
血漿蛋白結合率 | 10–25%[4] | ||
藥物代謝 | 大部分經肝臟代謝[7] | ||
代謝產物 | APAP gluc、APAP sulfate、APAP GSH、APAP cys、NAPQI[5] | ||
藥效起始時間 | 視給藥途徑而定: 口服:37 分鐘[6] 頰部:15分鐘[6] 靜脈注射:8分鐘[6] | ||
生物半衰期 | 1–4 小時[7] | ||
排泄途徑 | 尿(85–90%)[7] | ||
識別資訊 | |||
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CAS號 | 103-90-2 | ||
PubChem CID | |||
IUPHAR/BPS | |||
DrugBank | |||
ChemSpider | |||
UNII | |||
KEGG | |||
ChEBI | |||
ChEMBL | |||
PDB配體ID | |||
CompTox Dashboard (EPA) | |||
ECHA InfoCard | 100.002.870 | ||
化學資訊 | |||
化學式 | C8H9NO2 | ||
摩爾質量 | 151.163 g/mol | ||
3D模型(JSmol) | |||
密度 | 1.263 g/cm3 | ||
熔點 | 169 °C(336 °F) [9][10] | ||
沸點 | 420 °C(788 °F) | ||
水溶性 | 7.21 g/kg (0 °C)[11] 8.21 g/kg (5 °C)[11] | ||
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在常規劑量下,對乙酰氨基酚具有一定的退熱效果,[14][16][17] 但其效力不如布洛芬。[18] 尤其對於病毒性發熱,其臨床療效和應用價值尚存爭議。[14][19][20] 在治療急性輕度偏頭痛和間歇性緊縮型頭痛方面,對乙酰氨基酚表現良好。[21][22] 臨床研究表明,與阿司匹林和咖啡因聯用時,能更有效地緩解這類輕度頭痛,因此被推薦為首選藥物方案。[23][24] 在術後疼痛管理中,雖然對乙酰氨基酚有一定效果,但不及布洛芬明顯。[25] 不過,兩者聯合使用時,止痛效果更優於單獨使用任一藥物。對於骨關節炎導致的疼痛,該藥的緩解作用較為有限,臨床價值不高。[15][26][27] 此外,在治療下背痛、癌痛和神經性疼痛方面,目前缺乏足夠的證據支持其廣泛應用。[15][26][28][29][30][31]
在規範使用的情況下,對乙酰氨基酚的短期安全性較高,[32] 不良反應發生率與布洛芬相當。而在長期使用方面,其安全性優於非甾體抗炎藥(NSAID)。[33] 對於對NSAID(如布洛芬)敏感的患者,這種藥物常是較好的選擇。[34][35] 但需要注意,長期服用可能導致血紅蛋白下降(暗示存在胃腸道出血的風險)[36] 及肝功能異常。成人每日最大安全劑量為3至4克,[26][37] 超過此劑量可能引發肝毒性,嚴重時可導致肝功能衰竭。[8] 在歐美國家,對乙酰氨基酚中毒已成為急性肝衰竭的主要原因,同時也是美國、英國、澳大利亞和新西蘭最常見的藥物過量事件。[38][39][40]
關於這種藥物的起源,有記載稱其最早由查爾斯·弗雷德里克·格哈特(Charles Frédéric Gerhardt)於1852年合成,也有說法認為哈蒙·諾思羅普·莫爾斯(Harmon Northrop Morse)於1878年首次製備了這種化合物。[41][42][43] 如今,對乙酰氨基酚已成為歐美地區使用最廣泛的鎮痛退熱藥,[44] 並被列入世界衛生組織的基本藥物目錄。[45] 除泰諾、必理通等品牌外,市面上還有多種仿製藥可供選擇。[46] 據統計,僅在2022年,美國開出了超過500萬張對乙酰氨基酚處方,使其位列該國最常開具處方藥物的第114位。[47][48]
醫療用途
退燒
對乙酰氨基酚是一種常用的退燒藥。[13] 然而,有關其退熱效果的研究並不充分,尤其是在成人中的應用效果仍不明確。[14] 有醫學專家指出,可能存在對這種藥物的退熱用途過度處方的情況。[14] 臨床研究顯示,對乙酰氨基酚在緩解普通感冒症狀方面雖對鼻塞和流鼻涕有所幫助,但對喉嚨痛、全身不適、打噴嚏和咳嗽等症狀的效果較為有限。[49]
在重症監護中,與其他干預手段相比,對乙酰氨基酚僅能使體溫降低約0.2-0.3°C,且未能降低患者的死亡率。[16] 對於發熱的腦卒中患者,該藥物的效果也並不顯著。[50] 在膿毒症的治療中,研究結果不一:部分研究表明可能增加死亡率,另一些研究則顯示降低死亡率,甚至也有研究認為其對死亡率無影響。[16] 在登革熱的治療中,對乙酰氨基酚不僅未顯現顯著療效,反而增加了肝酶升高的風險,這可能預示對肝臟有損害。[51] 因此,目前不建議常規使用對乙酰氨基酚等退燒藥來處理髮熱伴感染的住院患者。[20]
在兒科領域,對乙酰氨基酚的退熱效果尚待明確。[52] 醫生建議,不應單純為了退燒而使用該藥,但對於發熱並伴有明顯不適的兒童可以酌情使用。[53] 需要注意的是,該藥物無法預防熱性驚厥。[53][54] 在標準劑量下,僅能使體溫下降約0.2°C,在急診場景下作用較小。[14] 因此,部分醫生建議適當增加劑量,以期達到0.7°C的降溫效果。[17] 研究還表明,在兒童退燒方面,對乙酰氨基酚效果稍遜於布洛芬,[55] 這一差異在兩歲以下兒童中同樣存在,[56] 但兩種藥物的安全性相當,它們對哮喘加重的風險也相似。[18] 醫生建議五歲以下兒童避免同時服用這兩種藥物,但在必要時可以交替使用。[53]
止痛
對乙酰氨基酚主要用於緩解輕至中度疼痛,適用於頭痛、肌肉酸痛、輕度關節炎疼痛、牙痛,以及因感冒、流感、扭傷和痛經引發的疼痛。[57] 當前研究支持其在急性輕中度疼痛中的應用,但對於慢性疼痛的療效尚缺乏足夠證據。[15]
肌肉骨骼疼痛
在骨關節炎和背痛等肌肉骨骼疼痛的治療中,對乙酰氨基酚的療效存在不確定性。[15]
研究顯示,該藥物對骨關節炎患者的幫助有限,臨床效果並不顯著。[15][26] 美國風濕病學會和關節炎基金會的治療指南指出,臨床試驗數據表明對乙酰氨基酚的療效非常有限,對大多數患者幫助不大。[27] 然而,對於無法使用非甾體抗炎藥的患者,指南仍建議可以短期或間歇性地使用對乙酰氨基酚,並強調長期服用者需定期檢查肝功能。[27] 歐洲抗風濕病聯盟(EULAR)也對手部骨關節炎提出了類似建議。[58] 歐洲骨關節炎協會(ESCEO)則在其膝關節炎治療方案中明確指出,對乙酰氨基酚僅適合用於短期的急性止痛。[59]
對於急性下背痛,對乙酰氨基酚的止痛效果有限。[15][28] 對於慢性背痛或放射性背痛,由於缺乏充分的隨機臨床試驗支持,尚不能確定其療效。[29][26][28]
頭痛
在急性偏頭痛的治療中,對乙酰氨基酚表現出較好的效果[21]:服藥一小時後,約39%的患者疼痛得到緩解,而安慰劑組僅有20%見效。[60] 值得一提的是,阿司匹林/對乙酰氨基酚/咖啡因的複方製劑效果更為顯著,已被證實可作為偏頭痛的一線用藥。[23]
對於頻繁發作的緊縮型頭痛,單獨使用對乙酰氨基酚的效果相對有限。[22] 然而,上述三聯複方製劑效果明顯優於單一用藥和安慰劑:用藥兩小時後,29%的患者完全無痛,而單獨使用對乙酰氨基酚的患者中僅21%達到這一效果,安慰劑組更低,只有18%。[61] 德、奧、瑞三國的頭痛協會和德國神經病學會將這一複方製劑列為緊張性頭痛自我治療的首選推薦,其中對乙酰氨基酚/咖啡因組合被列為首選,單純對乙酰氨基酚則作為備選方案。[24]
牙科及術後止痛
牙科手術後的疼痛常被用作評估止痛藥效果的標準模型。[62] 研究顯示,在此類疼痛的治療中,布洛芬的效果優於對乙酰氨基酚。標準劑量的非甾體抗炎藥(如布洛芬、萘普生或雙氯芬酸)在止痛效果上明顯優於常用的對乙酰氨基酚/可待因複方製劑。[63] 而對乙酰氨基酚與布洛芬或雙氯芬酸的聯合使用效果更好,可能優於單獨使用其中任一種藥物。[25][64][65][66] 此外,對乙酰氨基酚/布洛芬組合效果或優於對乙酰氨基酚/可待因或布洛芬/可待因組合。[64]
一項涵蓋牙科手術在內的術後疼痛研究顯示,對乙酰氨基酚/可待因複方製劑效果顯著優於單獨使用對乙酰氨基酚:該複方製劑可為53%的患者提供明顯的止痛效果,而安慰劑組僅有7%有效。[67]
其他類型疼痛
在新生兒操作性疼痛的緩解方面,對乙酰氨基酚效果不佳。[68][69] 對於產後會陰部疼痛,非甾體抗炎藥的效果顯著優於對乙酰氨基酚。[70]
目前,對乙酰氨基酚在癌痛和神經病理性疼痛治療中的應用研究尚不足。[30][31] 在急診科,靜脈注射對乙酰氨基酚用於急性疼痛控制的效果有一定證據支持,但數據仍較有限。[71] 研究顯示,對乙酰氨基酚與咖啡因的複方製劑在急性疼痛的治療中效果優於單獨使用對乙酰氨基酚。[72]
不良反應
過量服用
普遍認為正常劑量服用對乙酰氨基酚非常安全,無論對於幼兒還是成人。但是長期、過量服用對乙酰氨基酚可能造成不良後果。服用超過7.5 g/日或150 mg/kg(體重) 可能導致肝臟損害。患有肝臟疾病的患者服用對乙酰氨基酚應諮詢醫師。身體健康者服藥期間也應避免飲酒。另有證據顯示對乙酰氨基酚可能存在輕微的腎毒性,長期大劑量服用可能導致腎臟損害,故建議腎病患者服用含對乙酰氨基酚的藥品應格外注意。
含對乙酰氨基酚的藥品
許多非處方藥中都含有對乙酰氨基酚成分,這情況在世界各地都很普遍,因為一般西醫診所的醫生都會為病人處方多種藥物,並且很難從藥品名稱中得知其含有對乙酰氨基酚。所以用量應計算所有服用的藥品中的對乙酰氨基酚的用量,以免因為重覆服藥而出現藥物中毒。[73]
作用機制
至今,對乙酰氨基酚的作用機制還未完全明瞭。主要的作用機制應該是對環氧化酶的抑制作用,近期的研究發現其對COX-2的選擇性更強。[74]因為其對COX-2具有選擇性,所以對乙酰氨基酚不會抑制血栓形成。[74]對乙酰氨基酚有止痛和退燒作用,這與阿司匹林等其他NSAID無異,但是對乙酰氨基酚的外周抗炎作用受到多種因素的制約,其中之一便是炎性病變中的過氧化物。然而,在某些情況下,可以觀察其外周抗炎活性幾乎與NSAID相同。
與非類固醇抗炎藥物相似,但是與鴉片類藥物不同,對乙醯氨基酚不會使人精神愉快或是改變心情。對乙醯氨基酚和NSAID類藥物不會有令人上癮和產生依賴性的危險。對乙醯氨基酚的分子無對掌性,所以不會有旋光性。對乙醯氨基酚的兩個英文名字都來自於他的化學名稱「N-acetyl-para-aminophenol」(N-乙醯-對-氨基苯酚)和「para-acetyl-amino-phenol」(對乙醯氨基酚)。在某些文獻中,對乙醯氨基酚被簡記作「APAP」。
歷史
中世紀時期,僅有的退熱藥物是一種存在於柳樹樹皮中的物質(一類叫作水楊酸的物質,後來導致了阿司匹林的發展)和一種存在於金雞納樹樹皮裡的物質。金雞納樹皮也是用來製造抗瘧疾藥物奎寧的主要原料,奎寧本身也有退熱的功效。直到19世紀中後期才發展出提煉分離水楊苷和水楊酸的技術。
1880年代以來,隨着金雞納樹日益減少,人們開始尋找其替代品。1886年科學家發明了退熱冰(乙酰苯胺),1887年又發明了非那西丁(乙酰對氨苯乙醚)。1873年,哈蒙·莫斯(Harmon Morse)首先通過對硝基苯酚和冰醋酸的在錫催化下反應合成了對乙酰氨基酚,但是在二十年之內對乙酰氨基酚並沒有用於醫學用途。1893年,在某些服用了非那西丁的患者的尿液里發現了對乙酰氨基酚的存在,並濃縮成白色、稍有苦味的晶體。1899年對乙酰氨基酚被發現是退熱冰的代謝產物,但是這些發現在當時並沒有被重視。
1946年美國止痛與鎮靜劑研究所撥款給紐約市衛生局 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)研究止痛劑的問題。伯納德·布羅迪和朱利葉斯·阿克塞爾羅德被分配研究非阿司匹林類退熱劑為何產生高鐵血紅蛋白症(一種非致命的血液疾病)這一副作用。1948年伯納德和愛梭羅德發現退熱冰的作用歸功於他的代謝產物對乙酰氨基酚,因此他們提倡使用對乙酰氨基酚替代退熱冰,因為對乙酰氨基酚沒有類似退熱冰的毒副作用。
1955年, 強生公司的對乙酰氨基酚藥片在美國境內上市銷售,商品名為泰諾。
1956年,葛蘭素史克公司500毫克一片的對乙酰氨基酚藥片在英國境內上市銷售,商品名必理通(英語:Panadol)。1963年,對乙酰氨基酚列入英國藥典,並因其較小的副作用和與其它藥物的相互作用而流行開來。
獸醫用途
貓
對乙酰氨基酚對貓有劇毒性。因為貓缺乏分解對乙酰氨基酚所必要的UGA1酶。初期症狀包括嘔吐、流口水、呼吸急促以及舌頭與口腔變色。 與人類的對乙酰氨基酚中毒機理不同,肝損傷並不是主要死因。而是因為高鐵血紅蛋白的形成和其紅血球內大量產生海因茲小體,阻礙了血的運氧功能,進而導致窒息(或稱正鐵血紅蛋白血症或溶血性貧血)。[75]
給予乙醯半胱氨酸[76]、亞甲藍或兩者合併有時候可以對少量的對乙酰氨基酚誤食有效。
狗
雖然獸醫界普遍認為對乙酰氨基酚沒有明顯的消炎藥效,臨床顯示其對於舒緩狗的肌肉骨骼痛比阿斯匹靈有效。[77] 一種對乙酰氨基酚-可待因產品(商品名Pardale-V)[78]在市面上有販售,並允許在獸醫、藥劑師或其他通過認證的專家指示下作為獸用藥。[78]惟該種藥應該在獸醫指示和極端審慎下對狗施用。[78] 對乙酰氨基酚對狗的主要毒性是肝損傷,另外也有消化道潰瘍的案例。[76][79][80]在誤食對乙酰氨基酚的兩小時內給予乙醯半胱氨酸是很有效的解毒手法。[76][77]
蛇
對乙酰氨基酚對蛇是致命的,而且在關島是對棕樹蛇(Boiga irregularis)的一種化學控制手段。[81][82]具體施用方法為將80 mg的對乙酰氨基酚注入到死老鼠內作為毒餌,然後用直升機散佈。[83]
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