藍鯨
藍鯨(學名:Balaenoptera musculus)是屬於鬚鯨小目的海洋哺乳動物,也是地球史上已知最大的動物,文獻紀錄中的最大長度為29.9米,體重達199噸。藍鯨的身軀瘦長,呈流線型,背部青灰色,下身顏色比較淡。目前已知藍鯨至少有四個亞種:生活在北大西洋和北太平洋的北方藍鯨(B. m. musculus);棲息在南冰洋的南極藍鯨(B. m. intermedia);棲息在印度洋和南太平洋的侏儒藍鯨(B. m. brevicauda);印度洋的北印度洋藍鯨(B. m. indica)。在智利附近水域或許還存在第五個亞種。
藍鯨 化石時期:更新世前期至今,
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一頭成年的北方藍鯨 (B. m. musculus) | |
科學分類 | |
界: | 動物界 Animalia |
門: | 脊索動物門 Chordata |
綱: | 哺乳綱 Mammalia |
目: | 偶蹄目 Artiodactyla |
下目: | 鯨下目 Cetacea |
科: | 鬚鯨科 Balaenopteridae |
屬: | 鬚鯨屬 Balaenoptera |
種: | 藍鯨 B. musculus
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二名法 | |
Balaenoptera musculus (Linnaeus, 1758)
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亞種 | |
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藍鯨的棲息範圍 | |
異名 | |
列表
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一般而言,藍鯨群體會在夏季前往極地附近的捕食點,冬季則返回熱帶附近的繁殖點。也有證據顯示存在全年的定居,以及部分或基於年齡或性別的遷徙。與其他鬚鯨一樣,藍鯨採取濾食捕食方式,主要以磷蝦為食。它們一般單獨行動,或組成小團體,除母親與幼崽外無其它明確的社會關係結構。藍鯨叫聲基本頻率在8到25赫茲之間,取決於地區、季節、行為、早晚差異,叫聲或有不同。虎鯨是其唯一自然捕食者。
直到20世紀初,地球上幾乎每片海域中藍鯨的數量都相當多。而後捕鯨者的獵殺使牠們幾乎滅絕,直到國際捕鯨委員會在1966年開始保育藍鯨後,它們的數量才逐漸回升。2018年,國際自然保護聯盟將藍鯨列為瀕危物種。如今,藍鯨仍面臨許多人類帶來的威脅,例如船舶撞擊、環境污染、海洋聲音污染、氣候變化等。
分類和演化
命名
藍鯨的屬名 Balaenoptera 意為鬚鯨[3],種小名 musculus 來自於拉丁語,有「強健」的意思,但也可以譯為「小老鼠」。[4]卡爾·林奈在1758年出版的《自然系統》發表該物種時,可能刻意用了這個帶有諷刺意味的雙關語。[5][6][7][3]關於藍鯨最早發表的描述來自羅伯特·西巴德的《Phalainologia Nova》[8],其源於西巴德於1692年在蘇格蘭福斯灣觀察到的鯨魚群。「藍鯨」譯自其英語名稱「blue whale」,語源為挪威語「blåhval」,由改良了捕鯨炮的斯文·福因恩創造。1874年,挪威科學家耶奧格·薩爾斯採用這個名稱為其俗名。[9]
其他常見的名稱還有西巴德鯨、塞巴氏鬚鯨,來自藍鯨的最初描述者羅伯特·西巴德。[8]赫爾曼·梅爾維爾在其小說《白鯨記》中稱藍鯨為硫磺底(英語:sulphur-bottom)[10],因為矽藻附著在藍鯨的皮膚上,使得牠們的下側呈現橘棕色或淡黃色,因此其也稱為磺底鯨。[7][11]此外還有大藍鯨(英語:great blue whale)、大北鬚鯨、巨北鬚鯨(英語:great northern rorqual)等名稱,不過近幾十年來這些名稱漸漸被人們所遺忘。
分類
雖然藍鯨通常被歸類在鬚鯨屬,但也有學者將牠歸類在單型屬——藍鯨屬(Sibbaldus)中,不過這種分類方法並沒有被其他學者接受。[12][13]至少發現有四個藍鯨亞種,其中有些還被進一步分為族群集團或「管理單元(英語:management units)」。
藍鯨的四個亞種分別為:
- 北方藍鯨(B. m. musculus)
- 北大西洋族群 - 該族群主要活動於新英格蘭至加拿大東海岸和格陵蘭島,尤其是夏天的聖勞倫斯灣,有些成員全年都在此活動。它們也在冰島附近聚集,挪威海亦有它們的身影。有記錄它們向西印度群島、亞速爾群島和非洲西北部海域遷徙。[14]
- 東北太平洋族群 - 夏天時這個區域的藍鯨主要在加利福尼亞州附近海域捕食,秋天前往奧勒岡和華盛頓州附近海域,然後在晚些時候繼續前往阿拉斯加洋流和阿留申群島附近。冬天至春天,藍鯨往南遷徙至墨西哥附近,主要集中在加利福尼亞灣和哥斯達黎加熱蓋,它們也在此繁殖。[14]
- 中西太平洋族群 - 記錄顯示,該族群夏天活動於堪察加半島,有些成員會在此持續活動整年。冬天時他們可能會前往夏威夷海域,也有部分在秋冬時期出現在阿拉斯加灣。[14]
- 北印度洋藍鯨(B. m. indica):該亞種全年都在印度洋西北部活動,不過也有些成員會在夏秋之間前往克羅澤群島附近。[14]
- 侏儒藍鯨(B. m. brevicauda)
- 南極藍鯨(B. m. intermedia):該亞種主要在南極洲附近海域活動。最遠在熱帶太平洋東部、印度洋中部、澳大利亞西南部、新西蘭北部海域記錄到它們的身影。[14]
智利附近海域的藍鯨族群有獨特的叫聲,並且因為地理分隔導致的遺傳分離,它們或許可被歸為新的亞種。[15][16][17]智利藍鯨在東熱帶太平洋可能與南極亞種和東北大西洋族群有交集。智利藍鯨與南極亞種基因不同,因此不太可能雜交。但它們與東北大西洋族群遺傳差異較小,可能存在基因流動。[18]
演化
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六種鬚鯨的系統發生樹[19] |
藍鯨屬於鬚鯨科,這個科的成員還包括座頭鯨、塞鯨、布氏鯨與小鬚鯨。[20] 根據2018年的一項分析,鬚鯨科大約在1048到498萬年前的中新世與其它親緣物種分離。[19]最早的解剖學現代藍鯨化石發現於意大利南部,年代約在距今150-250萬年的更新世早期。[21]澳大利亞侏儒鯨在末次冰盛期分離,較短的分離時間導致它們的遺傳多樣性相對較低[22],新西蘭藍鯨的遺傳多樣性則更低。[23]
對藍鯨的全基因測序表明,藍鯨與塞鯨的親緣最近,與灰鯨為姐妹群。研究還發現在小鬚鯨與藍鯨、塞鯨祖先之間存在基因流動。藍鯨也表現出很高的遺傳多樣性。[19]
雜交
已知藍鯨會與長鬚鯨雜交。最早有記錄的藍鯨與長鬚鯨的雜交後代是一體長20米的雌性個體,它同時具備藍鯨和長鬚鯨的特徵,生活在太平洋北部。[24]1984年在西班牙西北海域捕獲的一頭鯨魚被發現其父母分別為長鬚鯨和藍鯨。[25]
記錄有兩頭長鬚鯨-藍鯨雜交後代生活在加拿大聖勞倫斯灣和葡萄牙亞速爾群島。.[26]冰島捕鯨公司Hvalur hf在2018年捕殺了一頭雜交鯨魚,DNA測試顯示其父親為長鬚鯨,母親為藍鯨。[27]不過該結果還有待覆核,因為國際捕鯨委員會將藍鯨認定為「保護物種」,捕殺屬於必須上報的違規行為,交易它們的肉是非法的。[28]在日本鯨肉市場中也有檢測到長鬚鯨-藍鯨雜交種。[29]這種雜交物種是可育的。對1986年一頭懷孕鯨魚的分子檢測發現,它的母親是藍鯨,父親是長鬚鯨,它肚中胎兒的父親是藍鯨。[30]
數量與分布
數量
自1966年禁止捕殺藍鯨以來,它們的種群數量趨於穩定並有所上升。根據自蘇聯停止捕殺藍鯨後的數據,南極海域的藍鯨數量平均每年增長7.3%,但其總數仍低於捕鯨活動前的1%。[32]有研究指出冰島和加利福尼亞州附近的藍鯨數量也有增長,但該數據沒有統計學意義。[33]根據2018的年估算,全球大約有5,000–15,000頭成年藍鯨,總數大約在10,000-25,000頭。相比之下,1926年全球大約有140,000頭成年藍鯨。估計如今有約1,000-3,000頭藍鯨生活在北大西洋,3,000-5,000頭生活在北太平洋,5,000-8,000生活在南大洋。在南太平洋東部或許還生活有1,000–3,000頭藍鯨和2,000-5,000頭侏儒藍鯨。[34]自1939年起,藍鯨在南半球受到保護。1959年,根據《國際捕鯨管制公約》,生活在北大西洋的藍鯨受到保護。1965年,公約保護範圍擴展至南大洋,1966年擴展至北太平洋。[35][36]冰島直到1960年才承認公約在北大西洋對藍鯨的保護。[37]在美國,藍鯨受《1973年瀕危物種法案》保護。[38]
杜克大學海洋哺乳動物研究者開發維護了BIS-SEAMAP系統(海洋生物地理信息系統 - 巨型脊椎動物族群的空間生態分析,英語:Ocean Biogeographic Information System - Spatial Ecological Analysis of Megavertebrate Populations),可用以更加精確的檢測藍鯨族群數量。[39]該系統通過對130個來源的收集整理,構建出海洋哺乳動物的活動蹤跡。[40]
分布
藍鯨在全球都有分布,但很少出現在北冰洋、地中海、鄂霍次克海、白令海。[14]不同亞種(或其下的族群)生活在不同海域,具體參見§ 分類章節。中國附近海域也有藍鯨出沒,2017年在北海市近潿洲島海域觀察到了藍鯨活動。[41]
最大的藍鯨集團是位於北太平洋的北方藍鯨,數量達到了2,000頭。它們的分布範圍從阿拉斯加至哥斯達黎加,夏天時大多活動於加利福尼亞海域。[42]該群體成員偶爾會走失至太平洋西北部,在堪察加半島和日本北部海域有觀察到少量個體。[43]
大西洋北部也生活有兩個北方藍鯨群體。其一活動於格陵蘭、紐芬蘭島、加拿大新斯科舍省、聖勞倫斯灣海域,該群體大約有500個成員。另一群體在春季時活動於亞速爾群島,六月至八月遷往冰島,通常認為藍鯨在這兩個火山島嶼間是沿大西洋洋中脊為路線遷徙的。除冰島外,藍鯨偶爾也在斯瓦爾巴群島和揚馬延島被觀察到,但這種情況十分罕見。科學家仍不知道它們在哪過冬。生活在北大西洋的藍鯨總數大約600-1500頭。[44]
在南半球生活有兩個藍鯨亞種:南極海域的南極藍鯨和印度洋的侏儒藍鯨。南極海域藍鯨數量約1,100[45]-1,700[32]頭。侏儒藍鯨的數量仍未確定。根據1996年的估算,在馬達加斯加南部一小塊海域中有424-472頭侏儒藍鯨[46],這表明該亞種數目達數千頭。假如此估算正確,那麼在全球範圍內侏儒藍鯨的數量可能比人們預想的要多。[47]
另一藍鯨亞種北印度洋藍鯨是由愛德華·布萊思在1859年於印度洋北部描述的,但該亞種與侏儒藍鯨的差異不明顯,導致兩者常被歸為一類。蘇聯對其叫聲的錄音顯示該亞種雌性個體的體型或與侏儒藍鯨相當。不過北印度洋藍鯨和侏儒藍鯨的繁殖期相差六個月。[48]
這些族群的遷徙習性未有明確了解。夏季有在印度洋(阿曼、斯里蘭卡、馬爾代夫)觀測到侏儒藍鯨的活動,在此它們可以形成一個獨立群體。[48]此外,在智利與秘魯海域也有獨立的藍鯨群。有些南極藍鯨會在冬天前往大西洋東南部,而其叫聲偶爾也在秘魯、澳洲西部海域以及印度洋北部被監測到。[48]最近在智利南部奇洛埃島的科爾科瓦多灣發現了一個藍鯨食物聚集區。自那時起,鯨豚保育中心與智利海軍合作開展了藍鯨的研究與保育項目。[49]
特徵
藍鯨的身體呈流線型,頭部類似寬闊的U字形;鰭肢窄長;背鰭小,約33厘米,呈鐮刀形,靠近尾部;巨大的尾鰭在鯨尾末端。藍鯨上顎排列有70-395個鯨鬚板,喉嚨區域有60-88個凹槽,允許進食時皮膚的擴張。[50][7][11][51][52]它有兩個噴氣孔,並受到一個巨大「防護罩」的保護,噴出的水柱可達9.1-12.2米。[50][53][3][54]皮膚為斑駁的灰白色調,在水下時呈藍色。[50][55][53]不同個體在靠近背鰭處的斑紋樣式不同。[56][57][58]肚子下方的皮膚顏色較淺,可能因矽藻附著而呈黃色[50][55][53],因此過去也有人稱藍鯨為「硫磺底」。[59][60]藍鯨有所有動物中最大的陰莖,長度可達3米,直徑30厘米。[61]
藍鯨的鰭肢長3-4公尺。胸鰭的上方呈灰色,並有狹窄的白色邊緣,而下方則是全白的。牠們的頭部和尾鰭一般為灰色。藍鯨背部通常是雜色的,有時胸鰭也是這個顏色。斑紋變化的程度則因個體而有所不同。有些個體可能全身都是灰色的,但是其他的個體則是深藍,灰色和黑色互相混合在一起[20]。
體型
體長
藍鯨是地球上出現過體型最大的動物。[54][50][62][63][64]最大的藍鯨的數據尚未完全確定。大部分資料來自20世紀上半葉,人類在南極海域捕殺的藍鯨,不過這些資料的來源是不精通標準動物測量方法的捕鯨人。國際捕鯨委員會的數據庫中有88頭體長超過30米的藍鯨,其中體型最大的兩隻雌性藍鯨超過33米,分別為33.6米和33.3米。[65]不過部分測量方法有不準確之處,體長超過30.5米的記錄仍有爭論。[66]弗蘭克群島的發現委員會曾報告有體長達到31米的藍鯨。[67]有科學證明的最大藍鯨體長為29.9米,數據來自美國國家海洋哺乳動物實驗室,測量範圍從藍鯨吻突尖端至尾巴缺口處。[68][69]通常雌性藍鯨體型大於雄性,不同於雄性大於雌性的齒鯨。[11][70]流體力學模型指出,鑑於代謝與能量限制,藍鯨的體長不會超過33米。[71]相比之下,目前已知最大的恐龍是生活在中生代的阿根廷龍[72],估計重達90噸;此外,已知材料不完整的巨體龍可能重達185-250噸,超過最大的藍鯨的180噸,但這個估計值僅是當地博主的估計,可信度不高,而且這也超過生物物理學定律,即腿骨最大支撐重量及神經綫傳導速度,前者即這恐龍的腿比身體還粗才行,後者代表恐龍後腿出問題也要5秒才有反應。[來源請求]
藍鯨北方亞種東北太平洋族群的成年雌性平均體長22米,中西太平洋族群24米,北大西洋族群21-24米,南極亞種25.4-26.3米,智利亞種23.5米,侏儒藍鯨21.3米。[66][73][74]
體重
因為藍鯨的體積太過巨大,過去很難測量牠們的體重。許多捕鯨人所獵殺的藍鯨並沒有完全測量過重量,因為他們首先會將鯨魚切成容易處理的大小,這導致藍鯨的總重量被低估,因為牠們的血液與體液都流失掉了。儘管如此,仍然有重150至180噸,長27米的藍鯨被紀錄。一隻長30米的個體被美國國家海洋哺乳類研究室認為其重量超過了180噸。直到目前為止,國家海洋哺乳類研究室的科學家精確測量過最巨大的藍鯨是一隻重177噸的雌鯨。[68]
生活在北半球的雄性藍鯨平均體重100噸,雌性112噸。東北太平洋族群雄性藍鯨平均體重88.5噸,雌性100噸。大西洋族群雄性藍鯨平均體重112噸,雌性130噸。侏儒藍鯨雄性平均體重83.5噸-99噸。[75]有記錄體重最重的藍鯨超過173噸[76],估計達199噸。[77]
藍鯨的舌頭大約重2.7噸[78],當它全部伸展開來時可以攫取90噸重的食物與海水。[79]即使擁有這樣巨大的嘴,藍鯨的喉嚨仍然無法吞下沙灘球那樣寬的物體。[80]牠們的心臟有汽車大小,北大西洋藍鯨族群的心臟平均重180千克,是已知的生物中最巨大的。[78][81]藍鯨的主動脈約23厘米寬。[82]在出生後的7個月內,幼鯨每天要喝400公升母乳。幼鯨的生長速度很快,體重每24小時增加90公斤。即使才剛出生,幼鯨的體重就能達到2,700公斤——相當於一頭成年河馬的體重。[20]
壽命
藍鯨的壽命大約在80-90年,但是由於個體的記錄無法回溯至捕鯨時代,所以要得知藍鯨的確切壽命還要經過很多年。[65][83][84][11]科學家通常根據藍鯨的耳垢或耳塞估算它們的年齡。每年因捕食或遷徙時的禁食,藍鯨積累的耳垢顏色深淺不同,科學家可根據這些顏色差別判斷其年齡。[85][86][87]侏儒藍鯨的最大年齡估計為73年。[88]此外,雌性藍鯨每次排卵都會在卵巢上留下疤痕或黃體,這也可作為估算年齡的依據。[89]雌性藍鯨的黃體形成周期約為2.6年。[88]
習性
藍鯨通常單獨活動,但偶爾也觀察到結伴行為。在食物充足時,可有多達50頭藍鯨聚集。[11]藍鯨群可能會一同長途遷徙至位於極地附近的夏天捕食點,然後在冬天到來時返回熱帶水域附近的繁殖點。[38]藍鯨似乎能夠記住最佳捕食區域的位置。[90]除定期遷徙外,有些藍鯨也會全年在同一區域定居,或是群體中的部分成員,或其中特定性別、年齡成員遷徙。有些藍鯨會在繁殖點附近捕食。[91]藍鯨的游動速度約為5-30km/h,短距離衝刺的速度可以達到50km/h,通常發生在和其他鯨魚互動時。[11][20]當牠們哺乳的時候,速度會降到5km/h。
有標記的藍鯨最大潛水深度達到315米。[92]理論最大潛水時間約31.2分鐘[93],不過有記錄的最久時間為15.2分鐘。[92]經確認的藍鯨最大潛水深度達510米。[94]在深水中,藍鯨的心跳可下降至2次每分鐘,重新返回水面後心跳速度恢復至37次每分鐘,接近其最高心跳速度。[95]
藍鯨在自然界中唯一的天敵是虎鯨。[96]研究報告顯示25%的成年藍鯨都有虎鯨攻擊留下的傷痕[65],但是攻擊造成的死亡率目前還沒有確切的資料。
藍鯨的擱淺事件非常少見,而且因為牠們的社會結構,所以從來沒有記錄到藍鯨發生群體擱淺。[97]但是當擱淺發生時,將會受到社會大眾的關注。1920年,一隻藍鯨在蘇格蘭外赫布裏底群島路易士島海灘擱淺,牠的頭部被捕鯨人射中,但魚叉卻沒有爆炸。和其他動物一樣,藍鯨憑藉本能不惜一切代價堅持呼吸,擱淺可以讓牠不至於溺死。路易士島上兩根矗立在大道旁的藍鯨骨頭吸引了大量遊客。[98]
繁殖
藍鯨在8-10歲時性成熟。北半球雌性藍鯨此時的體長為21-23米,雄性體長20-21米。南半球性成熟雌性藍鯨體長23-24米,雄性22米。[99]侏儒藍鯨性成熟年齡是10歲[73][74][100],此時雌性體長21.0-21.7米,雄性體長18.7米。[73][101][102]對於藍鯨的交配、繁殖行為及分娩區域所知甚少。[64][99]藍鯨為一夫多妻制,雄性之間相互競爭,以取得與雌性的交配權。[99][103]雄性藍鯨會跟蹤雌性,並會擊退其它潛在的雄性競爭者。[104]繁殖季節從晚秋持續至冬末。[83][64][99]
懷孕的雌性藍鯨每天進食相當於體重4%的食物,在整個夏季覓食期獲得60%的體重。[105][99][106]孕期約10-12個月,剛出生的幼鯨體長6-7米,體重2-3噸。[99]估計幼鯨需要每2-4千克母乳中獲得1千克體重,雌性藍鯨每天可產生220千克母乳。[107]2016年,在新西蘭附近海域首次拍攝到了藍鯨哺育幼鯨的影像。[108]幼鯨在6-8個月時斷奶,此時的體長為16米。它們在哺乳期獲得17噸體重。[63]藍鯨生育間隔為2到3年[99],侏儒藍鯨的平均生育間隔為2.6年。[88]
捕食
藍鯨幾乎只捕食磷蝦。[11]它們使用衝刺進食,張嘴可達80°,並以高速游向食物。[11][109]捕食時它們可一次吞下220噸海水。[110]藍鯨藉助其腹腔和舌頭的壓力,由鯨鬚板將這些海水排出,然後吞下剩餘的磷蝦。[11][109]當藍鯨捕食磷蝦時,偶爾也會吞進小型魚類、甲殼類與烏賊。[111][112]有記錄藍鯨在衝刺進食時進行了180°轉彎,這允許它們調整位置,找到獵物密度最高的位置。[113]
為最大化能量攝入,藍鯨在捕食磷蝦群時會選擇密度最大的蝦群發起衝擊。這使它們在日常能量消耗外仍保留有足夠的額外能量用於遷徙與繁殖。磷蝦密度需要達到100隻/m³,藍鯨的能量收入才可高於消耗。[109][114]一次進食可攝取34,776–1,912,680千焦(8,312–457,141卡路里)的能量,這些能量最多可供藍鯨進行240次衝刺進食動作。[109]估計一隻平均體型藍鯨每天需要進食1,120 ± 359千克磷蝦。[115][116]有時候牠們一天會捕食5,000千克的磷蝦。[117]
藍鯨通常會避免與其它鬚鯨的直接競爭。[118][119][120]不同鯨魚會選擇不同的捕食場地、時間和獵物。[121][122][110]南冰洋的不同鬚鯨捕食不同大小的南極磷蝦,這或許可以減少它們之間的競爭。[123]
發聲
藍鯨可發出所有動物中最響亮、頻率最低的聲音[14],並且它們的內耳也十分適應探測低頻聲音。[124]研究者通過距離藍鯨1米參考壓力一毫帕的測量,估計藍鯨的聲音在源頭處可以達到155-188分貝。[125][126]藍鯨的基礎發聲頻率為8-25赫茲[127],鯨歌因族群不同而有差異。[128]
藍鯨東北大西洋族群的發聲有較為詳細的研究。它們的聲音被總結為四個音符:脈衝聲(A)、音調聲(B)、緊接在B後的上揚聲(C),以及下降音(D)。[129][130]A和B通常在藍鯨相互交流時重複發出,並且只有雄性藍鯨才會使用這兩個聲音,這或許表明它們與交配活動相關。[130][131]D音或許有多種不同功用,兩種性別藍鯨在捕食時的交互中都可發出D音[131][132],雄性與其它個體競爭時也會發出D音。[104]
曾有記錄在斯里蘭卡海域的藍鯨創作的三節鯨歌。首節是頻率為19.8-43.5赫茲的脈衝聲,通常持續17.9 ± 5.2秒。第二節頻率為55.9-72.4赫茲調頻,持續時間13.8 ± 1.1秒。末節頻率108-104.7赫茲,時長28.5 ± 1.6秒。[133]在馬達加斯加有記錄到2節鯨歌[134],首節為5-7次中心頻率為35.1 ± 0.7赫茲,持續4.4 ± 0.5秒,第二節35 ± 0赫茲持續10.9 ± 1.1秒。[133]記錄到南冰洋藍鯨產生的18秒鯨歌,先是9秒時長,27赫茲叫聲,然後是1秒鐘至19赫茲的降調,隨後降調至18赫茲。[135][136]其它叫聲還包括1-4秒時長,頻率為80和38赫茲調頻。[136][137]
有證據表明藍鯨的叫聲頻率正隨時間下降。[138][139][140]自1960年代至21世紀初,藍鯨東北太平洋族群的叫聲頻率下降了31%。[138][139]從2002年起,生活在南極附近的侏儒藍鯨叫聲頻率逐年下降十分之幾赫茲。[140]其中原因可能是由於藍鯨族群數量的恢復,性選擇壓力逐漸升高(頻率更低的叫聲意味着更大的體型)。[139]
科學家曾提出了以下六種可能的藍鯨發聲原因:保持個體間的距離;同類和個體識別;環境資訊傳遞(例如覓食,警告,求偶);保持群體聯繫(例如雌性和雄性間的交流);地貌特徵定位;食物定位。[141]
捕食者和寄生者
虎鯨是藍鯨的唯一自然捕食者,不過藍鯨受其攻擊的幾率仍未有研究。攝像資料顯示,生活在在加利福尼亞灣的藍鯨中很大一部分都有耙狀傷疤,很可能是受虎鯨攻擊後留下的。[142]在澳洲東南海域拍攝的藍鯨相片中有3.7%觀察到了耙狀傷疤,而在澳洲西部海域拍攝的侏儒藍鯨相片中,有42.1%的個體帶有耙狀傷疤。[143]很少有記錄到虎鯨攻擊藍鯨的場景。首次直接觀察到的攻擊事件發生在澳洲東南海域,當時一頭雌性藍鯨與其幼崽被虎鯨追逐,不得不高速游動。[144]首次被記錄的攻擊事件發生在1977年的下加利福尼亞半島西南海域,最終受傷的藍鯨在5小時後逃脫。[145]在1982至2003年間,有更多的虎鯨群追逐藍鯨事件被記錄。[146]2003年9月在東部熱帶太平洋,人們首次記錄了虎鯨食用藍鯨的場景,當時虎鯨在吃一隻最近死去的幼年藍鯨。[147]2014年,一位觀鯨船船員記錄了在蒙特雷灣,藍鯨被一群虎鯊騷擾的場景。藍鯨自我防禦的方式是拍打其尾巴。[148]類似的時間於2017年發生在同一地點,並被一架無人機記錄了下來。[149]對虎鯨捕食藍鯨的直接觀察發生在澳大利亞西部海域,在2019年觀察到兩次,2021年一次。首次的被捕食藍鯨體長約18-22米。[150]
在南極附近海域活動時,藍鯨的身體會沾上硅藻(卵形藻屬的 Cocconeis ceticola 和舟形藻屬),在進入溫暖水域時,這些硅藻通常會脫落。其它體表寄生生物還包括藤壺,例如 Coronula diadema、Coronula reginae 和 Cryptolepas rhachianecti。藤壺深扎在藍鯨的皮膚上,以致其被移除後仍會在皮膚上留下小坑。鯨虱生活在藍鯨表皮縫隙,對藍鯨基本無害。橈足類動物 Pennella balaenopterae 會鑽入附着在鯨脂上,並以此為食。藍鯨腸道中的寄生蟲包括吸蟲屬下的 Ogmogaster 和 Lecithodesmus、絛蟲屬下的 Priapocephalus、Phyllobotrium、Tetrabothrius、Diphyllobotrium 和 Diplogonoporus ,以及棘頭蟲屬下的 Bolbosoma。北大西洋藍鯨也被原生動物寄生,例如內阿米巴蟲、梨形鞭毛蟲和小袋蟲。[151]
威脅與保護
美國的《1973年瀕危物種法案》正式將藍鯨認定為瀕危物種[152],並將其列入了國際自然保護聯盟紅色名錄。[34]同時藍鯨也被列入在《瀕危野生動植物種國際貿易公約》[153]和《保護野生動物遷徙物種公約》[154]中。不過,部分藍鯨亞種(例如侏儒藍鯨B. m. brevicauda)的具體種群數目仍未有完全了解,而另一些亞種(例如南極藍鯨B. m. intermedia)則為極危物種。[155][156]
捕鯨
起初人類難以狩獵藍鯨,因為其體型巨大,游速過快。[14]但到19世紀中葉,人們發明了彈射魚叉,這為捕鯨提供了便利。[157]捕鯨活動在1931-1932年達到了高峰,當時有30,000頭藍鯨遭捕殺。南極附近的藍鯨尤其受捕鯨活動的影響,據估計在20世紀上半葉當地有350,000–360,000頭藍鯨遭捕殺。此外,冰島附近海域也有11,000頭北大西洋藍鯨以及9,500頭北太平洋藍鯨被捕殺。[99]1966年。國際捕鯨委員會禁止了一切捕殺藍鯨的活動,並在全球範圍內保護藍鯨。[158]不過直到1970年代,蘇聯仍在捕殺藍鯨。[159]
船舶撞擊
如今,船舶撞擊是威脅藍鯨生存的重要因素,此狀況在美國西海岸尤為嚴重。[160]從1998至2019年,在美國西海岸有17頭藍鯨因船舶撞擊事故死亡。根據《海洋哺乳動物保護法案》,2007年加利福尼亞州海域的5頭藍鯨死亡被認為是不尋常死亡事件。[160][161]斯里蘭卡附近海域也常發生致命的船舶撞擊事故,因為繁忙的商船航線與藍鯨棲息地在此交匯。[162]2010和2012的船舶撞擊導致11頭藍鯨死亡[163],而2014年的船舶撞擊導致至少2頭藍鯨死亡。[164]2010年代發生在智利南部海域的船舶撞擊被認為造成了2頭藍鯨死亡。[165][166]降低船舶撞擊藍鯨的方法是建立更好的藍鯨分布模型、改變部分航線、降低船速、季節性動態管理航線。[167][168]
商業捕魚干擾
偶爾有記錄到藍鯨受商業捕魚設施纏繞的案例,最早的事件於2015年發生在加利福尼亞海域,當時報告說藍鯨遭到了深水捕魚陷阱的干擾。[169]2016年發生了另外3起捕魚設施纏繞藍鯨事件。[170]在斯里蘭卡,有一頭藍鯨被記錄其嘴裡和身體一側被漁網纏繞,尾部受傷。[171]
海洋噪音污染
日益增多的人為水下噪音也對藍鯨的生活造成了影響。[172][173]藍鯨可能暴露於商船行駛[174][175]、地震勘測、油氣開採活動附帶的噪音中。[176][177]南加州灣藍鯨受到中頻有源(英語:mid-frequency active, MFA)聲吶的影響而減少了叫聲交流。[178]研究發現MFA可對藍鯨深水捕食造成干擾,但對淺水活動無影響。這些影響程度也取決於藍鯨受干擾時的活動狀態、與聲源水平距離以及捕食難度。[179]
化學污染
人類排放的污染物對藍鯨的影響還不明確。藍鯨的食物鏈位置較低,因此化學物質的生物累積影響較小。[180]根據對一頭因船舶撞擊死亡的雄性藍鯨的耳垢的成分分析,其中檢測到了殺蟲劑、阻燃劑和水銀。對於持久性有機污染物(POP)的重建表明,母親體內的化學污染物會隨妊娠或母乳傳遞至幼鯨。[181]科學家在加拿大聖勞倫斯灣的雄性藍鯨體內檢測到了高濃度的多氯聯二苯(PCB)、雙對氯苯基三氯乙烷(DDT),以及代謝產物和部分與雌性相關的有機氯化合物,這顯示出持久性有機污染物會從母親藍鯨轉移至其後代。[182]
氣候變化
全球暖化導致了冰川與永久凍土層快速融化,並導致大量的淡水注入海中。一旦流入海中的淡水量超過臨界點,或將會導致溫鹽環流瓦解。考量到藍鯨根據海水溫度的遷移模式,環流瓦解將導致溫暖與寒冷的海水環繞全球,這可能會對藍鯨的遷徙造成影響。[183]藍鯨夏季時處在寒冷、高緯度的海域,因為這裡擁有豐富的食物;而冬季時則位於溫暖、低緯度的海域,在這裡牠們可以交配與生產。[184]
海洋溫度的改變也會影響藍鯨的食物來源,暖化趨勢也會減少鹽分的分布,這將會對的分布與密度造成重大的影響。[185]
流行文化
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延伸閱讀
書籍
- Randall R. Reeves, Brent S. Stewart, Phillip J. Clapham and James A. Powell (2002). National Audubon Society Guide to Marine Mammals of the World. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. ISBN 978-0-375-41141-0. pp. 89–93.
- J. Calambokidis and G. Steiger (1998). Blue Whales. Voyageur Press. ISBN 978-0-89658-338-2.
- Bortolotti, Dan. 藍鯨誌. 由龐, 元媛翻譯. 貓頭鷹出版. 2010. ISBN 9789861202914.
- Honeyborne, James; Brownlow, Mark. 重返藍色星球:發現海洋新世界. 由林, 潔盈翻譯. 好讀出版. 2018. ISBN 9789861784618.
網頁
- Blue Whale. American Cetacean Society. [2005-01-07]. (原始內容存檔於2007-07-11).
- Blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus. MarineBio.org. [2006-04-21]. (原始內容存檔於2012-01-23).
- U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Species Profile
外部連結
- 智利鯨類保護中心
- 科學尋求侏儒藍鯨的線索 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- 海洋自然歷史攝影師邁克·詹森的藍鯨照片 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- 美國鯨類協會藍鯨情況說明書
- 來自EnchantedLearning.com的藍鯨信息 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- 來自OceanLight.com的有關藍鯨的照片 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- 在OBIS-SEAMAP:海洋哺乳動物,鳥類和龜鱉 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)的 藍鯨物種簡述 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- MarineBio:藍鯨 Archived 2012-01-23 at WebCite
- ARKive中藍鯨的影片與照片
- 新貝爾德福博物館中藍鯨的照片*of "Kobo", a Blue Whale skeleton
- Blue Whale vocalizations - 康乃爾大學生物學研究
- 藍鯨的活動影片 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)