維基百科

使用者:Johnzheng/Sandbox

< User:Johnzheng
小埃里克·欣普頓·霍爾德
Eric Himpton Holder, Jr.
第82任美國司法部長
現任
就任日期
2008年2月3日
總統巴拉克·歐巴馬
前任邁克爾·穆凱西
美國司法部副部長
任期
1997年6月13日—2001年1月20日
總統比爾·克林頓
前任傑米·戈雷利克
繼任拉里·湯普森
華盛頓特區檢察官
任期
1993年10月、—1997年6月13日
提名比爾·克林頓
前任J·拉姆齊·約翰遜[1]
哥倫比亞特區高級法院助理法官
任期
1988年10月—1993年10月
提名羅納德·里根
個人資料
出生 (1951-01-21) 1951年1月21日（73歲）
紐約州紐約市
政黨美國民主黨
配偶Sharon Malone, M.D.
母校哥倫比亞大學 (文學學士, B.A)
哥倫比亞大學 (法律博士, J.D)
專業律師
宗教信仰美國聖公會

小埃里克·欣普頓·霍爾德（Eric Himpton Holder, Jr.，1951年1月21日—），美國政治家，民主黨人，曾任比爾·克林頓內閣司法部副部長（1997年-2001年）和代理美國司法部長（2001年），現任（第82屆）美國司法部長（2009年至今）。是美國歷史上第一任非裔美籍的司法部長[2] 。畢業於曼哈頓知名的史岱文森高中，並於1972年進入哥倫比亞大學就讀，1976年取得該校法律博士(J.D.)學位。

在就任司法部長之前，霍爾德曾經擔任過哥倫比亞特區高等法院的法官、聯邦檢察官、美國司法部副部長，並曾在 科文頓•柏靈律師事務所任職。在2008年美國總統大選中，他是巴拉克·奧巴馬的高級法律顧問，及副總統候選人選舉委員會的成員。、

早年生活

小埃里克·欣普頓·霍爾德出生在紐約布朗克斯區的一個巴巴多斯裔家庭[3][4][5]。霍爾德的父親，老埃里克·欣普頓·霍爾德（Eric Himpton Holder, Sr. ,1905–1970）出生於巴巴多斯的聖約瑟夫區，於11歲時來到美國[6][7]，他後來成為了一名地產經紀人。 小霍爾德的母親，米里亞姆，生於新澤西，他的外祖父母也是巴巴多斯裔移民[7]。 霍爾德在紐約皇后區的東埃爾姆赫斯特長大，並進入了當地一所公立學校學習，直到4年級的時候被一個優秀學生選拔計劃所選中[8]。1969年，他從曼哈頓著名的史岱文森高中畢業，並被哥倫比亞大學錄取。他進入了哥倫比亞大學的哥倫比亞學院學習，並於1973年獲得了美國史的文學學士 學位[9]。1976年，他於哥倫比亞大學法學院獲得了法律博士學位。在博士期間，他分別在全國有色人種協進會法律保護和教育基金會（NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund）和聯邦檢察官的崗位上任職過[8]。

職業生涯

從法學院畢業後，霍爾德進入了美國司法部新成立的公共廉正處（Public Integrity Section），並在那裡工作到了1988年。在這段時間裡，他, he assisted in the prosecution of 民主黨眾議員 Congressman John Jenrette for bribery discovered in the Abscam sting operation.[10]1988年，時任美國總統的羅納德·里根將他任命為哥倫比亞特區高等法院的一名法官[11] 。 Holder stepped down from the bench in 1993 to accept an appointment as United States Attorney for the 華盛頓特區 from President 比爾·克林頓. He was the first African-American U.S. Attorney in that office.[8] At the beginning of his tenure, he oversaw the conclusion of the corruption case against Dan Rostenkowski, part of the Congressional Post Office scandal.[10] He was a U.S. Attorney until his elevation to 司法部副部長 in 1997. Holder also served on 喬治華盛頓大學's Board of Trustees in 1996 and 1997.

司法部副部長

In 1997, after the retirement of Jamie Gorelick, Clinton nominated Holder to be the 司法部副部長 under Janet Reno. Holder was confirmed several months later in the Senate by a unanimous vote.[12] During his confirmation hearing, Holder's opposition to the death penalty was questioned, but he pledged his intention to cooperate with the current laws and Reno, saying, "I am not a proponent of the death penalty, but I will enforce the law as this Congress gives it to us."[13] Holder was the first African-American to serve in that position.[8] Holder briefly served as Acting Attorney General under President George W. Bush until the Senate confirmed Bush's nominee John Ashcroft.[14]

 
Deputy Attorney General Eric Holder opened an Interagency Working Group meeting of the White House Initiative on Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders hosted by the Department of Justice on October 18, 2000.

As 司法部副部長, Holder advised Reno about how far to go in the Justice Department's use of the Independent Counsel statute. Reno made the decision to permit Kenneth Starr to expand his investigation into the 萊溫斯基事件, leading to Clinton's impeachment.[8]

In his final days with the Clinton administration, Holder was involved with Clinton's last-minute pardon of fugitive and Democratic contributor Marc Rich. Between November 2000 and January 2001, Jack Quinn, Rich's lawyer and former White House Counsel from 1995–96, had been contacting Holder, testing the waters for the political viability of a presidential pardon. Quinn asked Holder for advice as to how he should proceed. According to Rich's attorney, Holder advised to circumvent standard procedures and to submit the pardon petition directly to the White House.[15]

After presenting his case to Holder in a November phone call and a last minute January 17 letter, Quinn arranged a phone call between the White House and Holder, asking the 司法部副部長 to share his opinion on the Rich pardon. Holder gave Clinton a "neutral, leaning towards favorable" opinion of the pardon.[8] The reporter Joe Conason contends that Rich's pardon was actually a favor from Clinton to members of the Israeli government, for which Clinton hoped to gain progress in the peace talks between 以色列 and 巴勒斯坦.[16]

During his February testimonies before the House Government Reform Committee and Senate Judiciary Committee, Holder argued his phone call was not intended as a formal Justice Department blessing of the pardon, saying, "my interaction with the White House, I did not view as a recommendation. because I didn't have the ability to look at all the materials that had been vetted through the way we normally vet materials."[17] He also did not believe his opinion would be interpreted as a go-ahead for the pardon. "What I said to the White House counsel ultimately was that I was neutral on this because I didn't have a factual basis to make a determination as to whether or not Mr. Quinn's contentions were in fact accurate, whether or not there had been a change in the law, a change in the applicable Justice Department regulations, and whether or not that was something that would justify the extraordinary grant of a pardon."[18] An investigation led by House Government Reform Committee chairman Dan Burton concluded in a 2003 report covering 177 Clinton pardons that Holder had played a significant role in facilitating the Rich pardon, first by recommending the well-connected Jack Quinn to Rich's legal representatives, by failing to fully inform prosecutors of the pending pardon, and by eventually delivering a "neutral leaning favorable" opinion to Clinton from a position of authority.[19] Holder has expressed some regret over his handling of the Rich pardon, stating "I wish I had done some things differently with regard to the Marc Rich matter. Specifically, I wish that I had ensured that the Department of Justice was more fully informed and involved in this pardon process", and called his own actions a "mistake".[20]

 
Official photo as 司法部副部長, ca. 2000

Holder was also involved in Clinton's decision to reduce the criminal sentences of 16 members of the Boricua Popular Army, an organization that has been categorized by the 聯邦調查局 as a terrorist organization. The clemency request was initially opposed in 1996 by U.S. Pardons Attorney Margaret Love. When Holder was elevated to 司法部副部長 in 1997, he was asked to reexamine the issue by three members of Congress. In July 1999, Holder recommended clemency to Clinton with a report from then U.S. Pardons Attorney Roger Adams that neither supported nor opposed clemency. A month later, Clinton granted clemency. According to The Hartford Courant, the grant of clemency was unusual because it was opposed by the FBI, the federal prosecutor and the victims. According to the newspaper, it was also unusual because before the commutations, the Boricua Popular Army members were not required to repudiate their actions and were not asked to provide any information concerning the whereabouts of Victor Manuel Gerena, a co-conspirator and one of the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives, or the millions of dollars stolen by the group in a 1983 robbery of Wells Fargo in West Hartford, Connecticut.[21]

Private practice

From 2001 until he became Attorney General, Holder worked as an attorney at Covington & Burling in Washington, D.C., representing clients such as Merck and the National Football League.[3][8] He represented the NFL during its dog fighting investigation against Michael Vick.[22]

In 2004, Holder helped negotiate an agreement with the Justice Department for Chiquita Brands International in a case that involved Chiquita's payment of "protection money" to the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia, a group on the U.S. government's list of 恐怖分子 organizations.[23][24] In the agreement, Chiquita's officials pleaded guilty and paid a fine of $25 million. Holder represented Chiquita in the civil action that grew out of this criminal case.[24]

In March 2004, Holder and Covington & Burling were hired by Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich to act as a special investigator to the Illinois Gaming Board. The Gaming Board had voted 4-1 earlier that month to allow a casino to be built in Rosemont, Illinois. That vote defied the recommendation of the board's staff, which had raised concerns about alleged organized-crime links to the Rosemont casino's developer. The move had also raised concerns that the governor had named his close friend and fund-raiser, Christopher Kelly, as a "special government agent" to be involved in official state negotiations about the casino. Holder's legal work for the State of Illinois never materialized when the board reversed its decision and refused to hire Kelly. The investigation was subsequently canceled on May 18, 2004.[25]

The firm represented Guantanamo inmates but Holder "never participated directly in the firm's Guantanamo work", and is not expected to recuse himself from matters pertaining to it.[26]

While D.C. v. Heller was being heard by the Supreme Court in 2008, Holder joined the Reno-led amicus brief, which urged the Supreme Court to uphold Washington, D.C.'s handgun ban and said the position of the Department of Justice, from Franklin Roosevelt through Clinton, was that the Second Amendment does not protect an individual right to keep and bear arms for purposes unrelated to a State’s operation of a well-regulated militia.[27] Holder said that overturning the 1976 law "opens the door to more people having more access to guns and putting guns on the streets."[28]

In 2008, Holder represented the wife of Robert Wone, victim of a controversial and unsolved 2006 murder.[29]

 
Holder speaking at a press conference on Guantanamo Bay detainees

In late 2007, Holder joined then-United States Senator Barack Obama's presidential campaign as a senior legal advisor. He served on Obama's vice presidential selection committee.[11]

Holder favors closing the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, although he said in 2002 that the detainees are not technically entitled to Geneva Convention protections.[30][31] He is opposed to the Bush administration's implementation of the Patriot Act, saying it is "bad ultimately for law enforcement and will cost us the support of the American people."[32][33] He has been critical of Enhanced interrogation techniques and the NSA warrantless surveillance program, accusing the Bush administration of a "disrespect for the rule of law... [that is] not only wrong, it is destructive in our struggle against terrorism."[34]

就任司法部部長

On December 1, 2008, Obama announced that Holder would be his nominee for Attorney General.[35][36] He was formally nominated on January 20, 2009 and approved by the Senate Judiciary Committee on January 28.[37][38] Following his confirmation by the full Senate on February 2, 2009, he became the first African-American Attorney General of the United States. His installation took place on March 27, 2009 at the Lisner Auditorium of the George Washington University.

During his confirmation hearings in the Senate, Holder agreed with Senator Patrick Leahy, Democrat of Vermont, that a technique used by U.S. interrogators under the Bush administration known as waterboarding is torture.[39] Holder was confirmed by a 75-21 vote on February 2, 2009.[40]

Holder gave a speech on race relations on February 18, 2009, in the midst of Black History Month, in which he called the United States "a nation of cowards" on racial issues. "Though race-related issues continue to occupy a significant portion of our political discussion and though there remain many unresolved racial issues in this nation, we average Americans simply do not talk enough with each other about race," he said.[41] The speech stirred mild controversy, with some reacting favorably to Holder's comments and others sharply criticizing them.[42][43] Obama rebuked Holder's comments, saying that 「I think it’s fair to say that if I had been advising my attorney general, we would have used different language」.[44]

When questioned about weapons regulations during a news conference to announce the arrest of Mexican drug cartel members, Holder stated that the Obama administration would seek to re-institute the expired Assault Weapons Ban, which he strongly supports.[45][46]

After the U.S. government filed suit against the Swiss bank UBS AG, whom Holder had represented during his time in private practice, the attorney general recused himself from all legal matters concerning the bank, which stands accused of conspiracy in U.S. tax fraud.[47][48]

On April 1, 2009, Holder announced that he had ordered the dismissal of the indictment against former Senator Ted Stevens on corruption charges. Stevens had been found guilty, but hadn't been sentenced; Holder's action effectively vacated Stevens' conviction. Holder was reportedly very angry that the prosecutors had withheld potentially exculpatory evidence from Stevens' attorneys. After the prosecutors had been held in contempt of court for failing to turn over required documents, Holder replaced the entire trial team. Soon afterward, the Justice Department discovered a previously undocumented interview with Bill Allen, the prosecution's star witness. In this interview, Allen gave statements that directly contradicted his testimony at trial, including a claim that he'd been asked to get a note for a repair bill on his house. By nearly all accounts, Holder wanted to send a message that he would not tolerate any behavior he deemed to be prosecutorial misconduct.[49]

Holder presented friend and predecessor Janet Reno, Attorney General under the Clinton Administration, the American Judicature Society's (AJS) Justice Award on April 17, 2009. The award is the highest given by the AJS, and recognizes significant contributions toward improvements in the administration of justice within the United States.[50]

On November 13, 2009, Holder announced that accused September 11 attack conspirators Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Ramzi Bin al-Shibh, Walid bin Attash, Ali Abdul Aziz Ali and Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi would be transferred from the military commission system to the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York for trial. He also expressed confidence that an impartial jury would be found "to ensure a fair trial in New York".[51]

Holder told the Senate Judiciary Committee on April 14, 2010, "No final decision has been made about the forum which Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and his co-defendants will be tried. As I said at the outset, this is a very close call."[52]

However, in early April 2011 Holder announced that the 9/11 co-conspirators will be tried by a military tribunal. "Holder said that he believes the trials could have been held in New York or Virginia, but that Congress imposed restrictions on where the trial could be held, taking the decision from his hands." [53]

In May 2010 Holder expressed "concerns" about "Arizona’s tough new immigration law", saying that it might "lead to racial profiling". Holder was criticized for his testimony during a House Judiciary Committee hearing, when he said that he had "not read" the Arizona law and that he had formed his opinions on the basis of news reports.[54][55][56] In July 2010, Holder stated that the Justice Department filed suit against the Arizona law because it is preempted by federal law. Holder was quoted as saying, "I understand, first off, the frustration of the people of Arizona and the concerns that they have with regard to the amount of illegal immigration that occurs, but the solution that the Arizona legislature came up with is inconsistent with our federal Constitution."[57]

In July 2010, Holder flew to Kampala, Uganda, to address the Heads of State Summit of the African Union, where he discussed the Obama Administration's priorities with regards to Africa and the terrorist bombings in Kampala during the World Cup.[58][59]

Before the November 2010 elections, Holder stated that he planned to prosecute people in California if they possess marijuana even if Californian voters passed a proposition legalizing marijuana (Proposition 19).[60] Proposition 19 was ultimately defeated.

After the United States diplomatic cables leak in December 2010, Holder said that "We have an active, ongoing, criminal investigation with regard to this matter," Holder said. "We are not in a position as yet to announce the result of that investigation, but the investigation is--is ongoing. To the extent that we can find anybody who was involved in the breaking of American law and who has put at risk the assets and the people that I have described, they will be held responsible," Holder said. "They will be held accountable." Holder's comments leave open a crucial question, which is whether the investigators are looking at how WikiLeaks obtained the documents (not unlike probing a news organization's source), or if they're looking at whether WikiLeaks staffers violated criminal law and should be the ones indicted.[61]

In March 2011 Holder left open the possibility that the Guantánamo Bay terrorist prison camp might live on beyond President Obama’s first term. Asked in a congressional hearing whether the prison would be closed by November 2012, Holder said: "I don’t know". He said the Justice Department has established a task force to look at each of the 172 detainees being held at the Guantánamo prison to address how they should be dealt with. Holder’s comments come just weeks after CIA Director Leon Panetta told a Senate panel that Osama bin Laden would probably be shipped to and held at the Guantánamo Bay facility if he were captured.[62]

爭議

參見：New Black Panther Party voter intimidation case

In May 2009, Holder's Department of Justice ended a civil suit originally brought by the Bush administration against the New Black Panther Party, its chairman, and two of its members for voter intimidation due to their conduct during the 2008 election. Two members of the party had stood outside a polling station during the election in paramilitary uniforms, one of them carrying a billy club, and both shouted racial insults at white voters. Although none of the defendants appeared in court to contest the charges, the department of justice voluntarily dropped the charges against the party, its chairman, and one of the two members who had stood outside the polling station, and obtained a narrow injunction against the other. While the Department of Justice has contended that the charges were dropped due to lack of evidence, several of its current and former members have stated that Holder's Department of Justice is unwilling to prosecute minorities for civil rights violations.[63] This accusation has been made most notably by J. Christian Adams, who in May 2010 resigned his post at the Department of Justice out of protest,[64] and by his former supervisor Christopher Coates.[65]

J. Christian Adams and another DOJ attorney, Hans von Spakovsky, have also accused the civil rights division in Holder's Department of Justice of inactivity and wastefulness. According to Adams and Spakovsky, although the voting section has hired dozens of new attorneys, the number of actual cases filed has declined sharply since Holder took office, and many of its employees spend their time "playing computer Solitaire, watching videos, and venting at the lack of activity."[66][67]

Holder has faced additional controversy for the Obama Administration's decision that his Department of Justice would no longer enforce certain provisions of the Defense of Marriage Act, which Representative Frank Wolf has described as a "decision to abandon your duty to defend this law."[68] During a meeting with a House subcommittee discussing this and other issues, Holder has argued that the behavior from the New Black Panther Party was not comparable to historical voter intimidation against minorities, stating "When you compare what people endured in the South in the 』60s to try to get the right to vote for African Americans, to compare what people subjected to that with what happened in Philadelphia… I think does a great disservice to people who put their lives on the line for my people."[69] Critics have interpreted this comment as evidence of racial bias on Holder's part, arguing "If he approaches the job with the attitude that any group smaller than all Americans is 'my people,' he is the wrong man for the position."[70]

個人生活

Holder is married to Dr. Sharon Malone, an 產科醫生; the couple have three children.[71] Malone's sister was Vivian Malone Jones, famous for her part in the 擋校門事件 which led to integration at the 阿拉巴馬大學.[72] Holder has been involved with various mentoring programs for inner-city youths. He is also an avid basketball fan.[73]

榮譽

2009年6月，巴巴多斯政府宣布將由 announced that it would begin a project to determine the first 100 Great Barbadians which would be selected among the public of 巴巴多斯. At the announcement of the project it was announced that Eric Holder was the first candidate to be nominated toward the final list.[74]

On May 16, 2010, Eric Holder presented the commencement address at 波士頓大學, for both the All-University Ceremony and the School of Law. In addition, he was presented with an 榮譽 Doctor of Laws degree.[75] On May 19, 2009, Holder was chosen by his母校, Columbia College, to be its Class Day Speaker.[76]

參考資料

  1. ^ Docs.google.com
  2. ^ Johnson, Carrie. Holder Confirmed As the First Black Attorney General: Nominee Overcame Objections in GOP. The Washington Post: Page A02. Tuesday, February 3, 2009 [2009-07-03]. 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 Johnston, David. Eric H. Holder, Jr. (Series). The New Team (The New York Times). November 11, 2008 [November 19, 2008]. 
  4. ^ Best, Tony. Obama's AG may be Bajan. Local News (Barbados: Nation Newspaper). November 16, 2008 [November 18, 2008]. 
  5. ^ Johnston, David. Eric H. Holder Jr.. The New York Times. November 12, 2008 [2009-01-31]. 
  6. ^ Social Security Death Index [database on-line]. United States: The Generations Network. [November 19, 2008]. 
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 Best, Tony. Obama getting help from Bajan son. Local News (Barbados: Nation Newspaper). June 8, 2008 [November 11, 2008]. 
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 Longstreth, Andrew. Making History With Obama (Cover Story). Making History. The American Lawyer. 2008 [November 18, 2008].  已忽略未知參數|month=（建議使用|date=） (幫助)
  9. ^ Tucker-Hamilton, Racine; Hickey, Matthew. Interview with Eric H. Holder, Jr. (Interview). Oral history project (The History Makers). December 17, 2004 [November 18, 2008]. 
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 Lewis, Neil A. Indictment of a Congressman: the Legal Case; Prosecutor No Stranger To Corruption in Politics (Article). U.S. (The New York Times). June 2, 1994 [November 19, 2008]. 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Memmott, A. James. Obama picks Caroline Kennedy, Holder, Johnson to lead Vice-Presidential candidate search. Muckety. June 5, 2008 [June 29, 2008]. 
  12. ^ Nominee Confirmed For Deputy Position At the Justice Dept.. Archives (The New York Times). July 18, 1997 [November 15, 2008]. 
  13. ^ Lewis, Neil A. Justice Dept. Nominee Faces Questions but No Strong Opposition (Article). U.S. (The New York Times). June 14, 1997 [November 18, 2008]. 
  14. ^ Ashcroft Settles In. Politics (CBS News). February 2, 2001 [June 29, 2008]. 
  15. ^ Ammann, Daniel. The King of Oil: The Secret Lives of Marc Rich. New York: St. Martin『s Press. 2009. ISBN 0-312-57074-0. 
  16. ^ Salon.com
  17. ^ Marc Rich Pardon: Former 司法部副部长 Eric Holder Begins Testimony (Transcript). Special Event (CNN). February 8, 2001 [November 18, 2008]. 
  18. ^ Marc Rich Pardon: Former 司法部副部长 Eric Holder Testifies Before Senate Judiciary Committee (Transcript). Special Event (CNN). February 14, 2001 [November 18, 2008]. 
  19. ^ Cowan, Alison Leigh. Marc Rich Panel Says Top Justice Dept. Aide Held Information on Rich's Pardon (Article). U.S. (The New York Times). March 13, 2002 [November 18, 2008]. 
  20. ^ Yost, Pete. Marc Rich pardon controversy just won't die (Article). Google News. Associated Press. November 19, 2008 [December 17, 2008]. 
  21. ^ Mahoney, Edmund H. Clinton-Era Sentence Reductions Could Trip Holder's Confirmation. The Hartford Courant. December 28, 2008 [January 6, 2009]. 
  22. ^ Hook, Carol S. 10 Things You Didn’t Know About Eric Holder (Article). Nation & World: Politics. U.S. News & World Report. November 19, 2008 [November 23, 2008]. 
  23. ^ Leonnig, Carol D. In Terrorism-Law Case, Chiquita Points to U.S.. Politics: Bush Administration (The Washington Post). 2 August 2007: A01 [November 14, 2008]. 
  24. ^ 24.0 24.1 Gray, Kevin. The Banana War. International News. Condé Nast Portfolio. 2007 [November 14, 2008].  已忽略未知參數|month=（建議使用|date=） (幫助)
  25. ^ Fusco, Chris. Holder omitted Blagojevich link from questionnaire (Article). Metro. The Chicago Sun-Times. December 17, 2008 [December 17. 2008]. 
  26. ^ Joe Palazzolo Some Justice Department Lawyers Have Gitmo Conflicts March 02, 2009 Legal Times
  27. ^ Brief for Former Department of Justice Officials as Amici Curiae Supporting Petitioners (PDF). American Bar Association. 
  28. ^ Nakamura, David; Barnes, Robert. D.C.'s Ban On Handguns In Homes Is Thrown Out (Article). Metro: Special Reports (The Washington Post). March 10, 2007: A01 [November 19, 2008]. 
  29. ^ Naff, Kevin. Who killed Robert Wone? Two years later, too many questions remain in murder of local attorney. Washington Blade. 2008-08-01 [2009-04-09].  [失效連結] "Kathy Wone held a news conference with her then-attorney, Eric Holder"
  30. ^ Tapper, Jake. Holder v Bush on War on Terror Tactics (Blog). Political Punch (ABC新聞網). November 18, 2008 [November 23, 2008]. 
  31. ^ CFR Profile of Eric Holder
  32. ^ White House, Woodward Clash Over Allegations of Oil Price Fixing With Saudis, Critics Find Fault with Patriot Act (Transcript). Judy Woodruff's Inside Politics (CNN). April 19, 2004 [November 19, 2008]. 
  33. ^ Greenwald, Glenn. Preliminary facts and thoughts about Eric Holder (Blog). Glenn Greenwald's Unclaimed Territory (Salon.com). November 19, 2008 [November 19, 2008]. 
  34. ^ Tuohey, Jason. Holder on Bush, executive power (Article). News (Boston Globe). November 18, 2008 [November 18, 2008]. 
  35. ^ change.gov. Key members of Obama-Biden national security team announced (Press release). Newsroom. Office of the President-elect. December 1, 2008 [December 1, 2008]. 
  36. ^ Rhee, Foon. Obama names national security team (Article). News (Boston Globe). December 1, 2008 [December 1, 2008]. 
  37. ^ Presidential Nomination PN64-07-111, 111th Congress, January 20, 2009
  38. ^ Judiciary Panel Approves Holder’s Nomination, New York Times, January 28, 2009.
  39. ^ Holder: "Waterboarding is torture"
  40. ^ Margasak, Larry. Senate confirms Holder as first black AG. Associated Press. February 2, 2009 [February 2, 2009].  [失效連結]
  41. ^ Remarks as Prepared for Delivery by Attorney General Eric Holder at the Department of Justice African American History Month Program. U.S. Department of Justice. February 18, 2009. 
  42. ^ Mitchell, Mary. Attorney General Eric Holder's race speech stirs debate. The Chicago Sun-Times. February 19, 2009. 
  43. ^ Hornick, Ed. Holder 'nation of cowards' remarks blasted, praised. CNN. February 19, 2009. 
  44. ^ Cooper, Helene. Attorney General Chided for Language on Race. The New York Times. March 7, 2009. 
  45. ^ Lang, Brent. Holder Revives Talk Of An Assault Weapons Ban. CBS News. February 26, 2009. 
  46. ^ Lang, Lang. Holder Revives Talk Of An Assault Weapons Ban. CBS News. February 26, 2009 [May 5, 2009]. 
  47. ^ UBS bank listed among Holder ex-clients. The Seattle Times. January 27, 2009. 
  48. ^ Mikkelsen, Randall. U.S., Swiss justice officials meet amid UBS probe. Reuters. March 2, 2009. 
  49. ^ Totenberg, Nina. Justice Dept. Seeks To Void Stevens' Conviction. NPR. 1 April 2009 [1 April 2009]. 
  50. ^ "Holder to Present Reno with AJS's Justice Award" Palazzolo, Joe. The BLT:The Blog of Legal Times. April 17, 2009. Retrieved April 18, 2009.
  51. ^ Terry Frieden, Chris Kokenes. Accused 9/11 plotter Khalid Sheikh Mohammed faces New York trial. CNN. 2009-11-13. 
  52. ^ Holder: No Decision Yet on Where to Try Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, 9/11 Conspirators. Fox News. April 14, 2010. 
  53. ^ Holder Refers 9/11 Co-conspirators to Military Tribunal. Department of Defense. [4 April 2011]. 
  54. ^ Markon, Jerry. Holder Is Criticized for Comments on Ariz. Immigration Law, Which He Hasn't Read. The Washington Post. May 14, 2010. 
  55. ^ Dinan, Stephen. Holder Hasn't Read Arizona Law He Criticized. The Washington Times. May 13, 2010. 
  56. ^ Holder Admits to Not Reading Arizona's Immigration Law Despite Criticizing It. FoxNews.com. May 14, 2010. 
  57. ^ Holder: Ariz. Law Inconsistent with Federal Law. CBS News. July 10, 2010. 
  58. ^ US Attorney General to Address African Union Summit.. AFP news. July 23, 2010. 
  59. ^ Justice.gov
  60. ^ Wohlsen, Marcus. 「Feds Will Enforce Pot Laws.」 Press-Telegram 16 Oct. 2010: A1, A8.
  61. ^ AG says WikiLeaks criminal probe is 'ongoing'
  62. ^ Gitmo may stay open beyond 2012
  63. ^ Dispute over New Black Panthers case causes deep divisions. The Washington Post, October 22, 2010.
  64. ^ Inside the Black Panther case. The Washington Times, June 25, 2010.
  65. ^ Justice lawyer alleges bias at agency. The Washington Post, September 25, 2010.
  66. ^ J. Christian Adams. Obama's see-no-evil, do-nothing Justice Department ignores voting rights. The Washington Examiner, December 15, 2010.
  67. ^ Hans von Spakovsky. They're playing games, literally, in the Justice Department The Washington Examiner, February 28, 2011.
  68. ^ Holder gets a grilling from Republicans during budget hearing. CNN, March 02, 2011.
  69. ^ Holder says experiences of 『my people’ not similar to contemporary voter intimidation. The Daily Caller, March 3, 2011.
  70. ^ Eric Holder's People. The Wall Street Journal, March 2, 2011.
  71. ^ Eric H. Holder Jr.. Biographies. Covington & Burling LLP. June 15, 2008 [November 18, 2008]. 
  72. ^ Holley, Joe. Vivian Malone Jones Dies; Integrated U-Ala. (Obituaries). Metro (The Washington Post). October 14, 2005 [November 19, 2008]. 
  73. ^ Politics.usnews.com
  74. ^ 100 Great Barbadians to be recognised. Barbados Advocate. June 12, 2009 [June 11, 2009]. 
  75. ^ 2010 BU Honorary Degree Recipients. BU Today. April 30, 2010 [May 1, 2010]. 
  76. ^ Resmovits, Joy. Holder Selected as Class Day Speaker. Columbia Daily Spectator. March 10, 2009 [July 7, 2010]. 

延伸閱讀

外部連結

 
維基共享資源上的相關多媒體資源：Johnzheng/Sandbox



鐵 26Fe
氫（非金屬） 氦（惰性氣體）
鋰（鹼金屬） 鈹（鹼土金屬） 硼（類金屬） 碳（非金屬） 氮（非金屬） 氧（非金屬） 氟（鹵素） 氖（惰性氣體）
鈉（鹼金屬） 鎂（鹼土金屬） 鋁（貧金屬） 矽（類金屬） 磷（非金屬） 硫（非金屬） 氯（鹵素） 氬（惰性氣體）
鉀（鹼金屬） 鈣（鹼土金屬） 鈧（過渡金屬） 鈦（過渡金屬） 釩（過渡金屬） 鉻（過渡金屬） 錳（過渡金屬） 鐵（過渡金屬） 鈷（過渡金屬） 鎳（過渡金屬） 銅（過渡金屬） 鋅（過渡金屬） 鎵（貧金屬） 鍺（類金屬） 砷（類金屬） 硒（非金屬） 溴（鹵素） 氪（惰性氣體）
銣（鹼金屬） 鍶（鹼土金屬） 釔（過渡金屬） 鋯（過渡金屬） 鈮（過渡金屬） 鉬（過渡金屬） 鎝（過渡金屬） 釕（過渡金屬） 銠（過渡金屬） 鈀（過渡金屬） 銀（過渡金屬） 鎘（過渡金屬） 銦（貧金屬） 錫（貧金屬） 銻（類金屬） 碲（類金屬） 碘（鹵素） 氙（惰性氣體）
銫（鹼金屬） 鋇（鹼土金屬） 鑭（鑭系元素） 鈰（鑭系元素） 鐠（鑭系元素） 釹（鑭系元素） 鉕（鑭系元素） 釤（鑭系元素） 銪（鑭系元素） 釓（鑭系元素） 鋱（鑭系元素） 鏑（鑭系元素） 鈥（鑭系元素） 鉺（鑭系元素） 銩（鑭系元素） 鐿（鑭系元素） 鎦（鑭系元素） 鉿（過渡金屬） 鉭（過渡金屬） 鎢（過渡金屬） 錸（過渡金屬） 鋨（過渡金屬） 銥（過渡金屬） 鉑（過渡金屬） 金（過渡金屬） 汞（過渡金屬） 鉈（貧金屬） 鉛（貧金屬） 鉍（貧金屬） 釙（貧金屬） 砈（類金屬） 氡（惰性氣體）
鍅（鹼金屬） 鐳（鹼土金屬） 錒（錒系元素） 釷（錒系元素） 鏷（錒系元素） 鈾（錒系元素） 錼（錒系元素） 鈽（錒系元素） 鋂（錒系元素） 鋦（錒系元素） 鉳（錒系元素） 鉲（錒系元素） 鑀（錒系元素） 鐨（錒系元素） 鍆（錒系元素） 鍩（錒系元素） 鐒（錒系元素） 鑪（過渡金屬） 𨧀（過渡金屬） 𨭎（過渡金屬） 𨨏（過渡金屬） 𨭆（過渡金屬） 䥑（預測為過渡金屬） 鐽（預測為過渡金屬） 錀（預測為過渡金屬） 鎶（過渡金屬） 鉨（預測為貧金屬） 鈇（貧金屬） 鏌（預測為貧金屬） 鉝（預測為貧金屬） 鿬（預測為鹵素） 鿫（預測為惰性氣體）
-
↑
鐵
↓
釕
錳 ← 鐵 → 鎳
外觀
金屬:帶藍的淺灰色，鐵離子(II):黃綠色，鐵離子(III):黃褐色
 
通過電解提煉製成的鐵片（純度99.97%+），左上角為高純度（99,9999% = 6N）的1cm3鐵方塊。
 
鐵的光譜
概況
名稱·符號·序數鐵（iron）·Fe·26
元素類別過渡金屬
族·週期·區8·4·d
標準原子質量55.845(2)
電子排布3d64s2
2,8,14,2
 
鐵的電子層（2,8,14,2）
物理性質
物態固體
密度（接近室溫）
7.874 g·cm−3
熔點1811 K，1538 °C，2800 °F
沸點3134 K，2862 °C，5182 °F
熔化熱13.8 kJ·mol−1
汽化熱349.6 kJ·mol−1
比熱容25.10 J·mol−1·K−1
蒸氣壓
壓/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
溫/K 1728 1890 2091 2346 2679 3132
原子性質
氧化態2,3,4,6
（兩性）
電負性1.83（鮑林標度）
電離能第一：762.5 kJ·mol−1
第二：1561.9 kJ·mol−1
第三：2957 kJ·mol−1
（更多）
原子半徑126 pm
共價半徑132±3(低自旋)，152±6（高自旋） pm
 
鐵的原子譜線
雜項
晶體結構簡單立方晶格
磁序磁性
電阻率（20 °C）96.1n Ω·m
熱導率80.4 W·m−1·K−1
膨脹係數（25 °C）11.8 µm·m−1·K−1
聲速（細棒）（室溫）5120 m·s−1
楊氏模量211 GPa
剪切模量82 GPa
體積模量170 GPa
泊松比0.29
莫氏硬度4
維氏硬度608 MPa
布氏硬度490 MPa
CAS號7439-89-6
同位素
主條目：鐵的同位素
同位素 豐度 半衰期​（t1/2） 衰變
方式 能量​（MeV） 產物
54Fe 5.8% >3.1×1022年 2個電子捕獲 ? 54Cr
55Fe 痕量 2.73年 1個電子捕獲 0.231 55Mn
56Fe 91.72% 穩定，帶30粒中子
57Fe 2.2% 穩定，帶31粒中子
58Fe 0.28% 穩定，帶32粒中子
59Fe 痕量 44.503天 β−衰變 1.565 59Co
60Fe 痕量 2.6×106年 β−衰變 3.978 60Co

鐵（Iron）是原子序數為26的化學元素，它的元素符號是Fe，是過渡金屬中的一種，像其它的8族元素一樣，有着眾多的化合價。鐵和鐵的合金（例如：鋼）是人類最常用的金屬和磁性材料。純淨的鐵表面呈光澤的銀灰色，但在空氣會被氧化而暗淡。

鐵礦石是地殼的主要組成成分之一，在地殼中的豐度排行第四（前三位是氧、硅和鋁）。它由大質量恆星的核聚變反應而產生，並且是核聚變反應鏈中最後的，也是最重的一個元素。

鐵是應用最廣泛的金屬，鐵的不同價態的化合物，也有着非常廣泛的用途。單質狀態的鐵很活潑，在空氣里會被氧化成鐵的氧化物，也就是通常所說的生鏽。鐵的化合價從−2價到+6價，其中+2價和+3價最為常見。它能和鹵素和氧族元素形成二元化合物。二茂鐵是首個被發現的「三明治」化合物，這是一類結構非常特殊的有機金屬化合物。在生物體內，含鐵的血紅蛋白和肌紅蛋白能和二氧化碳或氧氣形成配合物；這兩種蛋白是常見的氧氣轉運蛋白，在脊椎動物的新陳代謝過程中起了重要的作用。

性狀

機械特性

同素異形體

同位素

天然狀態下的鐵擁有四種同位素: 5.845%的54Fe, 91.754%的56Fe, 2.119%的57Fe和0.282%的 58Fe。54Fe被認為可以進行雙β衰變，然而這一過程尚未在實驗中被觀測到，計算給出的半衰期下限大約為：T1/2>3.1×1022年。60Fe是一種半衰期為260萬年的已絕滅核素。[1]

Much of the past work on measuring the isotopic composition of Fe has focused on determining 60Fe variations due to processes accompanying 核合成 (i.e., meteorite studies) and 礦物組成. 在近十年裡， 質譜技術的進步have allowed the detection and quantification of minute, naturally occurring variations in the ratios of the 穩定同位素s of iron. Much of this work has been driven by the 地球科學和行星科學 communities, although applications to biological and industrial systems are beginning to emerge.[2]

56Fe作為鐵元素豐度最高的同位素， is of particular interest to nuclear scientists as it represents最穩定的核素。56Fe的聚變和裂變均無法放出能量。 Since 56Ni is easily produced from lighter nuclei in the 氦核作用 in 核反應s in supernovae (參見硅燃燒過程), 56Ni (14 alpha particles) is the endpoint of fusion chains inside extremely massive stars, since addition of another alpha particle would result in zinc-60, which requires a great deal more energy. This nickel-56, 半衰期大約6天, is therefore made in quantity in these stars, but soon decays by two successive positron emissions within supernova decay products in the supernova remnant gas cloud, to first radioactive 56Co, and then穩定的56Fe. This last nuclide is therefore common in the universe, relative to other stable metals of approximately the same atomic weight.

In phases of the meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut a correlation between the concentration of 60Ni, the daughter product of 60Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes could be found which is evidence for the existence of 60Fe at the time of formation of the solar system. Possibly the energy released by the decay of 60Fe contributed, together with the energy released by decay of the radionuclide 26Al, to the remelting and differentiation of 小行星s after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of 60Ni present in extraterrestrial material may also provide further insight into the origin of the solar system and its early history. Of the stable isotopes, only 57Fe has a nuclear spin (−1/2).

Nuclei of iron atoms have some of the highest binding energies per nucleon, surpassed only by the nickel isotope 62Ni. This is formed by 核聚變 in stars. Although a further tiny energy gain could be extracted by synthesizing 62Ni, conditions in stars are unsuitable for this process to be favored. Elemental distribution on Earth greatly favors iron over nickel, and also presumably in supernova element production.[3]

56Fe是由恆星核合成氦核作用所能產生的最重的穩定同位素；比鐵和鎳更重的元素則需要在超新星爆發過程中才能形成。鐵是紅巨星核心豐度最高的元素之一和鐵隕石中豐度最高的金屬，並且也是行星核心，如地球核心的主要組成部分之一。

核合成

Ocurrence

化學性質和化合物

歷史

熟鐵

鑄鐵

鋼

物理性質

鐵 是有光澤的銀白色金屬，硬而有延展性，熔點為1535℃，沸點為3000℃，有很強的鐵磁性，並有良好的可塑性和導熱性。晶體結構為體心立方結構，晶格常 數a=2.87埃.日常生活中的鐵通常含有碳因而暴露在氧氣中容易在遇到水的情況下發生電化學腐蝕，而純度較高的鐵則不易腐蝕。

化學性質

具有金屬單質的通性，能與非金屬單質、酸、鹽等反應。

發現

鐵是古代就已知的金屬之一。鐵礦石是地殼主要組成成分之一，鐵在自然界中分布極為廣泛，但人類發現和利用鐵卻比黃金和銅要遲。首先是由於天然的單質狀態的鐵在地球上非常稀少，而且它容易氧化生鏽，加上它的熔點（1812K）又比銅（1356K）高得多，就使得它比銅難於熔煉。人類最早發現的鐵是從天空落下來的隕石，隕石中含鐵的百分比很高，是鐵和鎳、鈷等金屬的混合物，在融化鐵礦石的方法尚未問世，人類不可能大量獲得生鐵的時候，鐵一直被視為一種帶有神秘性的最珍貴的金屬。

鐵的發現和大規模使用，是人類發展史上的一個光輝里程碑，它把人類從石器時代、銅器時代帶到了鐵器時代，推動了人類文明的發展。至今鐵仍然是現代化學工業的基礎，人類進步所必不可少的金屬材料。

名稱由來

鐵，化學符號Fe的來源是拉丁文名稱Ferrum。

分布

鐵是地球上分布最廣的金屬之一。約占地殼質量的5.1%，居元素分布序列中的第四位，僅次於氧、硅和鋁。

在自然界，游離態的鐵只能從隕石中找到，分布在地殼中的 鐵都以化合物的狀態存在。鐵的主要礦石有：赤鐵礦Fe2O3，含鐵量在50%~60%之間；磁鐵礦Fe3O4，含鐵量60%以上，有亞鐵磁性，此外還有褐鐵礦Fe2O3·nH2O、菱鐵礦FeCO3和黃鐵礦FeS2，它們的含鐵量低一些，但比較容易冶煉。中國的鐵礦資源非常豐富，著名的產地有湖北大冶、東北鞍山等。


鐵的生產流程

參見：鐵礦

鐵或者鋼的生產一般由兩個主要步驟構成（若需要的是鑄鐵則沒有第二步）。第一步是通過高爐得到生鐵，第二步是通過進一步的處理得到熟鐵或鋼。

高爐法

主條目：高爐

直接還原法

製備

單質鐵的製備一般採用冶煉法。以赤鐵礦（Fe2O3）和磁鐵礦（Fe3O4）為原料，與焦炭和助溶劑在熔礦爐內反應，焦炭燃燒產生二氧化碳（CO2），二氧化碳與過量的焦炭接觸就生成一氧化碳（CO），一氧化碳和礦石內的氧化鐵作用就生成金屬鐵。

 
 
 
 
 

以上反應都是可逆反應，所產生的一氧化碳濃度越大越好，要使反應進行完全必須在800度以上進行。

化學純的鐵是用氫氣還原純氧化鐵來製取，也可由羧基合鐵來製取，也可由羧基合鐵熱分解來得到純鐵。

用途

在我們的生活裡，鐵可以算是最有用、最廉價、最豐富、最重的金屬。工農業生產中，鐵是最重要的基本結構材料，鐵合金用途廣泛；國防和戰爭更是鋼鐵的較量，鋼鐵的年產量代表一個國家的現代化水準。

對於人體，鐵是不可缺少的微量元素。在十多種人體必需的微量元素中，鐵無論在重要性上還是在數量上，都居於首位。

一個正常的成年人全身含有3克多鐵，相當於一顆小鐵釘的質量。人體血液中的血紅蛋白就是鐵的配合物，它具有固定氧和輸送氧的功能。人體缺鐵會引起貧血症。只要不偏食，不大出血，成年人一般不會缺鐵。

所謂煤氣中毒（一氧化碳中毒），也是由於血紅素中鐵離子核心被一氧化碳氣體分子緊緊地包圍住，喪失了吸收氧分子的能力，使人窒息中毒而死亡。

鐵還是植物製造葉綠素不可缺少的催化劑。如果一盆花缺少鐵，花就會失去顏色和芳香，葉子也發黃枯萎。一般土壤中也含有不少鐵的化合物。

生理作用

吸收和運輸

飲食和健康

吸收調控

危險性

 
維基共享資源中相關的多媒體資源：Johnzheng/Sandbox
 
維基共享資源上的相關多媒體資源：Johnzheng/Sandbox
  1. ^ Georges, Audi. The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties. Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass Data Center). 2003, 729: 3–128. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001. 
  2. ^ Dauphas, N.; Rouxel, O. Mass spectrometry and natural variations of iron isotopes (PDF). Mass Spectrometry Reviews. 2006, 25 (4): 515–550. PMID 16463281. doi:10.1002/mas.20078. 
  3. ^ Iron and Nickel Abundances in H~II Regions and Supernova Remnants. June 14, 1995 [2010-05-23]. .
取自「https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Johnzheng/Sandbox&oldid=17069978」