納瓦荷語
納瓦荷語,又稱納瓦霍語(英語:Navajo或Navaho;納瓦荷語:Diné bizaad)是一種通行於美國西南部的納-德內語系阿薩巴斯卡-埃雅克語族德內語支的語言,它不論在地理上或語言學上,都可算是南德內語支(德內語支的語言大多通行於美國阿拉斯加和加拿大西北部的地區)的語言。
納瓦荷語 | |
---|---|
Diné bizaad | |
母語國家和地區 | 美國 |
區域 | 亞歷桑那州、新墨西哥州、猶他州、科羅拉多州 |
母語使用人數 | 170,717人 (2007年[1]) |
語系 | |
語言代碼 | |
ISO 639-1 | nv |
ISO 639-2 | nav |
ISO 639-3 | nav |
ELP | Diné Bizaad (Navajo) |
瀕危程度 | |
聯合國教科文組織認定的瀕危語言[2] 脆弱(UNESCO) |
納瓦荷語的構成相當複雜,太平洋戰爭中曾作為密碼在美軍無線電中使用,以增加日本軍破解美方密碼的困難度。直到戰爭結束,這套系統尚未被日本破解。
納瓦荷語的使用者人數,比起其他在通行於美墨邊境以北地區的北美原住民語言都要多。在2007年,有170,717人自稱自己為納瓦荷語的使用者[1],且在此之後使用者人數依舊有所增加。
使用現狀
據「美國社區調查」(American Community Survey)在2007年的調查顯示,納瓦荷語的使用者人數有170,717人,這使得納瓦荷語成為唯一能在其統計圖表上被獨立表示的北美原住民語言。納瓦荷語多數的使用者生活於納瓦霍族保留地。有2.9%的納瓦荷語使用者為單語使用者,即其缺乏對英語的認知。四個納瓦荷語使用者比例較高的城鎮區域(metro- and micropolitan area)分別為法明頓(Farmington, New Mexico,有16.5%的人口使用納瓦荷語)、加路普(Gallup, New Mexico,有12%的人口使用納瓦荷語)、夫拉格斯達夫(Flagstaff, Arizona,有10.3%的人口使用納瓦荷語)和阿布奎基(Albuquerque,有5.4%的人口使用納瓦荷語)。[1]
在納瓦荷語通行的地區,有相當數量的雙語浸潤(immersion)學校從事保存與推廣納瓦荷語的工作。[3]
書寫系統與音系
子音
下表以IPA給出納瓦荷語的子音,並於其旁附上該音書寫時使用的記號:
雙唇音 齒齦音 硬顎音 軟顎音 喉音 中央音 邊音 非唇化音 唇化音 塞音 不送氣音 b [p] d [t] g [k] ʼ [ʔ] 送氣音 t [tx] k [kx] kw [kxʷ] 擠喉音 tʼ [tʼ] kʼ [kʼ] 塞擦音 不送氣音 dz [ts] dl [tˡ] j [tʃ] 送氣音 ts [tsʰ] tł [tɬʰ] ch [tʃʰ] 擠喉音 tsʼ [tsʼ] tłʼ [tɬʼ] chʼ [tʃʼ] 連續音 清音 s [s] ł [ɬ] sh [ʃ] h [x] hw [xʷ] h [h] 濁音 z [z] l [l] zh [ʒ] gh [ɣ] ghw [ɣʷ] 鼻音 m [m] n [n] 通音 y [j] (w [w])
h這個字母,在納瓦荷語正字法中,被用以表示兩個不同的子音,當它出現在詞幹開頭時,它發作[x],在前綴中或詞幹或單詞之結尾時,它發作[h]。然而,當[x]出現在s代表的音之後時,它記作x而非h,以免與sh產生混淆(像násxéés(意即「我正轉身」)即一例,不能將此字記作náshéés);gh [ɣ]這個子音在前母音i與e前記作y(在此些音前,[ɣ]顎化,變作[ʝ]),在o前則記作w([ɣ]在此音前唇化,變作[ɣʷ]),在a前則記作gh。出現於單詞開頭的喉塞音ʼ 不作表記。
對於/ɣ/ gh這個音,其唇化和顎化皆以其書寫系統表記,其中y表此音之顎化,而w表該音之唇化。此書寫法不分別其他子音的各種變體。
母音
納瓦荷語有四個基本的母音:a、e、i與o。每個母音都分長短音,也分非鼻音和鼻音:
- a和e等所表示者即為短母音
- aa和ee等所表示者即為長母音
- ą和ę等所表示者即為短鼻母音
- ąą和ęę等所表示者即為長鼻母音
聲調
納瓦荷語有「高聲」和「低聲」兩個聲調。每個音節預設的聲調為低音,高低兩聲在長母音的混合,可得四種可能性:
- 像áá和éé等所表示者即為高聲
- 像aa和ee等所表示者即為低聲
- 像aá和eé等所表示者即為起聲
- 像áa和ée等所表示者即為落聲
以上這些母音的各種特徵的混合是可能的,就如ą́ą́(此表高聲調之長鼻母音)所表示者一般。
語法
就語言類型學上來講,納瓦荷語是種中心語標記的多式綜合黏着語,唯其許多的詞綴已「縮略」在一起而使之在某方面與屈折語近似。納瓦荷語的基本語序為主詞─受詞─動詞。德內語支的語言一般使用前綴,這在基本語序為SOV的語言中是不尋常的(此類語言一般傾向使用後綴)。
納瓦荷語是「動詞重心」的語言(verb-heavy),它有許多的動詞,但名詞的數量相對較少。除此名詞與動詞外,納瓦荷語亦有代名詞、有着不同功能的附着詞素(clitic)、指示詞、數詞、後置詞、副詞和連接詞等不同的詞類存在。哈利·霍衣哲將名詞和動詞以外的所有詞,都歸入一個他稱之為「質詞」的詞類中。納瓦荷語沒有與英語形容詞相對應的詞類,其形容詞的功能以動詞取代。
參見
註釋
- ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 census.gov (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)「美國社區調查」(American Community Survey)在2007年的調查。資料查閱於2010年07月13日
- ^ UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger, UNESCO
- ^ 存档副本. [2011-09-29]. (原始內容存檔於2011-09-28). 像例如德非安斯要塞(Fort Defiance, Arizona)的Diné語言浸潤學校(Diné Language Immersion School)就為約240名幼稚園至八年級的學生提供此類教學。
參考文獻
教育方面
- Blair, Robert W.; Simmons, Leon; & Witherspoon, Gary.(1969). Navaho Basic Course. Brigham Young University Printing Services.
- Goossen, Irvy W.(1967). Navajo made easier: A course in conversational Navajo. Flagstaff, AZ: Northland Press.
- Goossen, Irvy W.(1995). Diné bizaad: Speak, read, write Navajo. Flagstaff, AZ: Salina Bookshelf. ISBN 0-9644189-1-6
- Goossen, Irvy W.(1997). Diné bizaad: Sprechen, Lesen und Schreiben Sie Navajo. Loder, P. B.(transl.). Flagstaff, AZ: Salina Bookshelf.
- Haile, Berard.(1941–1948). Learning Navaho,(Vols. 1–4). St. Michaels, AZ: St. Michael's Mission.
- Platero, Paul R.(1986). Diné bizaad bee naadzo: A conversational Navajo text for secondary schools, colleges and adults. Farmington, NM: Navajo Preparatory School.
- Platero, Paul R.; Legah, Lorene; & Platero, Linda S.(1985). Diné bizaad bee naʼadzo: A Navajo language literacy and grammar text. Farmington, NM: Navajo Language Institute.
- Tapahonso, Luci, & Schick, Eleanor.(1995). Navajo ABC: A Diné alphabet book. New York: Macmillan Books for Young Readers. ISBN 0-689-80316-8
- Witherspoon, Gary.(1985). Diné Bizaad Bóhooʼaah for secondary schools, colleges, and adults. Farmington, NM: Navajo Language Institute.
- Witherspoon, Gary.(1986). Diné Bizaad Bóhooʼaah I: A conversational Navajo text for secondary schools, colleges and adults. Farmington, NM: Navajo Language Institute.
- Wilson, Alan.(1969). Breakthrough Navajo: An introductory course. Gallup, NM: The University of New Mexico, Gallup Branch.
- Wilson, Alan.(1970). Laughter, the Navajo way. Gallup, NM: The University of New Mexico at Gallup.
- Wilson, Alan.(1978). Speak Navajo: An intermediate text in communication. Gallup, NM: University of New Mexico, Gallup Branch.
- Wilson, Garth A.(1995). Conversational Navajo workbook: An introductory course for non-native speakers. Blanding, UT: Conversational Navajo Publications. ISBN 0-938717-54-5.
- Yazzie, Evangeline Parsons, and Margaret Speas (2008). Diné Bizaad Bínáhoo'aah: Rediscovering the Navajo Language. Flagstaff, AZ: Salina Bookshelf, Inc. ISBN 978-1-893354-73-9
語言學方面和其他參考資料
- Akmajian, Adrian; & Anderson, Stephen.(1970). On the use of the fourth person in Navajo, or Navajo made harder. International Journal of American Linguistics, 36(1), 1–8.
- Creamer, Mary Helen.(1974). Ranking in Navajo nouns. Navajo Language Review, 1, 29–38.
- Faltz, Leonard M.(1998). The Navajo verb: A grammar for students and scholars. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1901-7(hb), ISBN 0-8263-1902-5(pbk)
- Frishberg, Nancy.(1972). Navajo object markers and the great chain of being. In J. Kimball(Ed.), Syntax and semantics(Vol. 1, p.259–266). New York: Seminar Press.
- Grimes, Barbara F.(Ed.)。(2000). Ethnologue: Languages of the world,(14th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-106-9.(Online edition: http://www.ethnologue.com/ (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館), accessed on November 19, 2004)。
- Hale, Kenneth L.(1973). A note on subject–object inversion in Navajo. In B. B. Kachru, R. B. Lees, Y. Malkiel, A. Pietrangeli, & S. Saporta(Eds.), Issues in linguistics: Papers in honor of Henry and Renée Kahane(p.300–309). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1945). Navaho phonology. University of New Mexico publications in anthropology,(No. 1)。
- Hoijer, Harry.(1945). Classificatory verb stems in the Apachean languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 11(1), 13–23.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1945). The Apachean verb, part I: Verb structure and pronominal prefixes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 11(4), 193–203.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1946). The Apachean verb, part II: The prefixes for mode and tense. International Journal of American Linguistics, 12(1), 1–13.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1946). The Apachean verb, part III: The classifiers. International Journal of American Linguistics, 12(2), 51–59.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1948). The Apachean verb, part IV: Major form classes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 14(4), 247–259.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1949). The Apachean verb, part V: The theme and prefix complex. International Journal of American Linguistics, 15(1), 12–22.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1970). A Navajo lexicon. University of California Publications in Linguistics(No. 78). Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Kari, James.(1975). The disjunct boundary in the Navajo and Tanaina verb prefix complexes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 41, 330–345.
- Kari, James.(1976). Navajo verb prefix phonology. Garland Publishing Co.
- McDonough, Joyce.(2003). The Navajo sound system. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 1-4020-1351-5(hb); ISBN 1-4020-1352-3(pbk)
- Reichard, Gladys A.(1951). Navaho grammar. Publications of the American Ethnological Society(Vol. 21). New York: J. J. Augustin.
- Sapir, Edward.(1932). Two Navaho puns. Language, 8(3), 217-220.
- Sapir, Edward, & Hoijer, Harry.(1942). Navaho texts. William Dwight Whitney series, Linguistic Society of America.
- Sapir, Edward, & Hoijer, Harry.(1967). Phonology and morphology of the Navaho language. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Speas, Margaret.(1990). Phrase structure in natural language. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 0-7923-0755-0
- Wall, C. Leon, & Morgan, William.(1994). Navajo-English dictionary. New York: Hippocrene Books. ISBN 0-7818-0247-4.(Originally published [1958] by U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Branch of Education, Bureau of Indian Affairs)。
- Webster, Anthony K.(2004). Coyote Poems: Navajo Poetry, Intertextuality, and Language Choice. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 28, 69-91.
- Webster, Anthony K.(2006). "ALk'idaa' Ma'ii Jooldlosh, Jini": Poetic Devices in Navajo Oral and Written Poetry. Anthropological Linguistics, 48(3), 233-265.
- Webster, Anthony K.(2009). Explorations in Navajo Poetry and Poetics. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
- Witherspoon, Gary.(1971). Navajo categories of objects at rest. American Anthropologist, 73, 110-127.
- Witherspoon, Gary.(1977). Language and art in the Navajo universe. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08966-8; ISBN 0-472-08965-X
- Yazzie, Sheldon A.(2005). Navajo for Beginners and Elementary Students. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Press.
- Young, Robert W.(2000). The Navajo verb system: An overview. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-2172-0(hb); ISBN 0-8263-2176-3(pbk)
- Young, Robert W., & Morgan, William, Sr.(1987). The Navajo language: A grammar and colloquial dictionary(rev. ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1014-1
- Young, Robert W.; Morgan, William; & Midgette, Sally.(1992). Analytical lexicon of Navajo. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1356-6; ISBN 0825313566
外部連結
- Hózhǫ́ Náhásdlį́į́ʼ - Language of the Holy People(有着Flash、影音和納瓦荷語學習幫助的納瓦荷語網站) (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館), gomyson.com
- Navajo Swadesh vocabulary list of basic words (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)(改自維基辭典的Swadesh-list appendix (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)一文)
- Some English - Diné Dictionary (pronunciations), blackmesais.org
- Contrasts between Navajo consonants (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)(Peter Ladefoged的聲音檔). humnet.ucla.edu
- Navajo Language & Bilingual Links (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)(聖胡安學區(San Juan school district)之資料). sanjuan.k12.ut.us
- Navajo Language Academy (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館), navajolanguageacademy.org
- Tuning in to Navajo: The Role of Radio in Native Language Maintenance (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館), jan.ucc.nau.edu
- An Initial Exploration of the Navajo Nation's Language and Culture Initiative (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館), jan.ucc.nau.edu
- Báʼóltaʼí Adoodleełgi Bínaʼniltingo Bił Hazʼą́(Center for Diné Teacher Education) (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館), dinecollege.edu
- Languagegeek Unicode fonts and Navajo keyboard layouts (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館), languagegeek.com
- Navajo fonts, dinecollege.edu
- The Navajo Language, library.thinkquest.org
- Navajo language (Encyclopedia of North American Indians), college.hmco.com
- Inventory of the Robert W. Young Papers, 1860-1992(bulk 1823-1980), libxml.unm.edu
- Reflections on Navajo Poetry, ou.edu
語言學方面之資料
- Navajo reflections of a general theory of lexical argument structure(Ken Hale & Paul Platero), museunacional.ufrj.br
- Remarks on the syntax of the Navajo verb part I: Preliminary observations on the structure of the verb(Ken Hale), museunacional.ufrj.br
- The Navajo Prolongative and Lexical Structure(Carlotta Smith), cc.utexas.edu
- A Computational Analysis of Navajo Verb Stems(David Eddington & Jordan Lachler), linguistics.byu.edu
- Grammaticization of Tense in Navajo: The Evolution of nt』éé(Chee, Ashworth, Buescher & Kubacki), linguistics.ucsb.edu
- A methodology for the investigation of speaker’s knowledge of structure in Athabaskan Archive-It的存檔,存檔日期2009-03-06(Joyce McDonough & Rachel Sussman), urresearch.rochester.edu
- How to use Young and Morgan’s The Navajo Language(Joyce McDonough), bcs.rochester.edu
- Time in Navajo: Direct and Indirect Interpretation(Carlota S. Smith, Ellavina T. Perkins, Theodore B. Fernald), cc.utexas.edu
- OLAC Resources in and about the Navajo language (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)