麻痹性贝毒

麻痹性贝毒(Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning toxin, PSP)是公认的四种贝毒症候群之一，它们有一些共同的特征，主要与双壳软体动物（如贻贝、蛤蜊、牡蛎和扇贝）有关。这些贝类是滤食性动物，会累积神经毒素，主要是由甲藻、矽藻和蓝藻等微小藻类产生的石房蛤毒素（Saxitoxin ，STX）。^[1] 亚历山大藻属双鞭毛藻是数量最多、分布最广的石房蛤毒素产生者，是亚北极、温带和热带地区产生麻痹性贝毒藻华的罪魁祸首^[2]。大多数有毒藻华都是由形态种链状亚历山大藻（英语：Alexandrium catenella）（Alexandrium catenella）、塔玛亚历山大藻（英语：Alexandrium tamarense）（Alexandrium tamarense）、Gonyaulax catenella和亚历山大藻（Alexandrium fundyense）引起的^[3]，它们共同组成了亚历山大藻种群。^[4] 在亚洲，麻痹性贝毒主要与 Pyrodinium bahamense 物种的出现有关。^[5]

有些河豚，包括膨胀单孔鲀，也含有石房蛤毒素，因此食用会造成伤害。^[6]

麻痹性贝毒在许多种不同的贝毒中毒事件属最严重，因其强烈毒性，经常造成消费者的中毒死亡事件，同时发生案例的广布性与高发性，各国在水产品检验项目中莫不对麻痹性贝毒特别重视。

麻痹性贝毒与蓝藻

真核双鞭毛藻和原核蓝藻（通常称为蓝绿藻）会产生麻痹性贝毒毒素（其中最常见的是石房蛤毒素）。在淡水海洋生态系中，蓝绿藻产生的石房蛤毒素对持久性有机污染物毒素的累积贡献最大。在蓝绿藻中，藻毒素的生物合成过程非常明确，而在甲藻中，藻毒素的生物合成过程大多还不清楚。放射性同位素追踪实验研究了蓝藻甲壳素的生物合成过程，结果显示这种合成过程非常复杂，涉及许多步骤、酵素和化学反应。起始试剂 L-精胺酸经过几个化学反应（其中一个罕见的化学反应称为克莱森酯缩合反应），经过四个中间产物，最终形成石房蛤毒素。^[7]

澳洲淡水贻贝 Alathyria condola 极易累积神经毒素。每100克贻贝在与环状蓝藻（Anabaena circinalis）接触2到3天后，可能会含有80微克以上的神经毒素，这一含量足以对人类健康造成重大威胁。^[8]

野生海洋哺乳动物体内的麻痹性贝毒

在阿拉斯加，海獭的主要猎物之一大石房蛤（Saxidomus gigantea）作为一种化学防御机制会生物累积石房蛤毒素，因此麻痹性贝毒被认为可能是导致海獭死亡和发病的原因之一^[9]。此外，摄取含有石房蛤毒素的鲭鱼也与座头鲸的死亡有关。^[10]

在地中海，地中海僧海豹（Monachus monachus）^[11]被怀疑死于麻痹性贝毒的其他案例也受到质疑，因为缺乏额外的检测来排除其他致死原因。^[12]。

历史

关于麻痹性贝毒中毒事件，在十七世纪时的北美与欧洲已有类似事件的记载^[13]，但是当时对病因仍不清楚，直到1928年Meyer等人在报告中对麻痹性贝毒中毒的症状加以描述^[14]，并推测毒素的来源可能来自于涡鞭毛藻；随后又由喂食毒藻的贻贝实验中得到上述假说的证实^[15]，而麻痹性贝毒一系列毒素的化学结构也在1957年由石房蛤(Saxidomus giganteus)中所分离出的石房蛤毒素Saxitoxin(STX)首次确认^[16]，其分子式为 C₁₀H₁₇N₇O₄。

内部链接

参考文献

^ Clark, RF; Williams, SR; Nordt, SP; Manoguerra, AS. A review of selected seafood poisonings (PDF). Undersea & Hyperbaric Medicine. 1999, 26 (3): 175–84. PMID 10485519. 原始内容存档于June 17, 2012.
^ Taylor, F. J. R.; Fukuyo, Y.; Larsen, J.; Hallegraeff, G. M. Taxonomy of harmful dinoflagellates. Hallegraeff, G.M.; Anderson, D.M.; Cembella, A.D. (编). Manual on Harmful Marine Microalgae. UNESCO. 2003: 389–432. ISBN 92-3-103948-2.
^ Cembella, A. D. Ecophysiology and Metabolism of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Marine Microalgae. Anderson, D. M.; Cembella, A. D.; Hallegraeff, G. M. (编). Physiological Ecology of Harmful Algal Blooms. NATO ASI. Berlin: Springer. 1998: 381–403. ISBN 978-3-662-03584-9.
^ Balech, Enrique. The genus Alexandrium or Gonyaulax of the Tamarensis Group. Anderson, Donald M.; White, Alan W.; Baden, Daniel G. (编). Toxic Dinoflagellates. New York: Elsevier. 1985: 33–8. ISBN 978-0-444-01030-8.
^ Azanza, Rhodora V.; Max Taylor, F. J. R. Are Pyrodinium Blooms in the Southeast Asian Region Recurring and Spreading? A View at the End of the Millennium. Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment. 2001, 30 (6): 356–64. PMID 11757284. S2CID 20837132. doi:10.1579/0044-7447-30.6.356.
^ Ngy, Laymithuna; Tada, Kenji; Yu, Chun-Fai; Takatani, Tomohiro; Arakawa, Osamu. Occurrence of paralytic shellfish toxins in Cambodian Mekong pufferfish Tetraodon turgidus: Selective toxin accumulation in the skin. Toxicon. 2008, 51 (2): 280–8. PMID 17996918. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.10.002. hdl:10069/22351  .
^ Tsuchiya, Shigeki; Cho, Yuko; Konoki, Keiichi; Nagasawa, Kazuo; Oshima, Yasukatsu; Yotsu-Yamashita, Mari. Biosynthetic route towards saxitoxin and shunt pathway. Scientific Reports. 2016-02-04, 6 (1): 20340. Bibcode:2016NatSR...620340T. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4740887  . PMID 26842222. S2CID 2697610. doi:10.1038/srep20340  （英语）.
^ Negri, Andrew P.; Jones, Gary J. Bioaccumulation of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins from the cyanobacterium Anabaena circinalis by the freshwater mussel Alathyria condola. Toxicon. 1995-05-01, 33 (5): 667–678. ISSN 0041-0101. PMID 7660371. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(94)00180-G （英语）.
^ DeGange, Anthony R.; Vacca, M. Michele. Sea Otter Mortality at Kodiak Island, Alaska, during Summer 1987. Journal of Mammalogy. November 1989, 70 (4): 836–8. JSTOR 1381723. doi:10.2307/1381723.
^ Geraci, Joseph R.; Anderson, Donald M.; Timperi, Ralph J.; St. Aubin, David J.; Early, Gregory A.; Prescott, John H.; Mayo, Charles A. Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) Fatally Poisoned by Dinoflagellate Toxin. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 1989, 46 (11): 1895–8. doi:10.1139/f89-238.
^ Hernández, Mauro; Robinson, Ian; Aguilar, Alex; González, Luis Mariano; López-Jurado, Luis Felipe; Reyero, María Isabel; Cacho, Emiliano; Franco, José; López-Rodas, Victoria; Costas, Eduardo. Did algal toxins cause monk seal mortality?. Nature. 1998, 393 (6680): 28–9. Bibcode:1998Natur.393...28H. PMID 9590687. S2CID 4425648. doi:10.1038/29906. hdl:10261/58748  .
^ Van Dolah, Frances M. Effects of Harmful Agal Blooms. Reynolds, John E. (编). Marine Mammal Research: Conservation Beyond Crisis. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. 2005: 85–101. ISBN 978-0-8018-8255-5.
^ Kao, 1993; Prakach et al. 1971)
^ Meyer et al, 1928
^ Sommer and Mayer, 1937
^ Schantz, et al., 1957

外部链接

Toxicity, Shellfish （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
Lawrence JF, Maher M, Watson-Wright W. Effect of cooking on the concentration of toxins associated with paralytic shellfish poison in lobster hepatopancreas. Toxicon. 1994 Jan, 32 (1): 57–64. PMID 9237337. 请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
Yentsch CM, Balch W. Lack of secondary intoxification by red tide poison in the American lobster Homarus americanus. Environ Lett. 1975, 9 (3): 249–54. PMID 1238253.
SeaGrant Alaska's information on PSP
Washington State Shellfish Biotoxin Program

[uhm-1] Clark, RF; Williams, SR; Nordt, SP; Manoguerra, AS. A review of selected seafood poisonings (PDF). Undersea & Hyperbaric Medicine. 1999, 26 (3): 175–84. PMID 10485519. 原始内容存档于June 17, 2012.

[2] Taylor, F. J. R.; Fukuyo, Y.; Larsen, J.; Hallegraeff, G. M. Taxonomy of harmful dinoflagellates. Hallegraeff, G.M.; Anderson, D.M.; Cembella, A.D. (编). Manual on Harmful Marine Microalgae. UNESCO. 2003: 389–432. ISBN 92-3-103948-2.

[3] Cembella, A. D. Ecophysiology and Metabolism of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Marine Microalgae. Anderson, D. M.; Cembella, A. D.; Hallegraeff, G. M. (编). Physiological Ecology of Harmful Algal Blooms. NATO ASI. Berlin: Springer. 1998: 381–403. ISBN 978-3-662-03584-9.

[4] Balech, Enrique. The genus Alexandrium or Gonyaulax of the Tamarensis Group. Anderson, Donald M.; White, Alan W.; Baden, Daniel G. (编). Toxic Dinoflagellates. New York: Elsevier. 1985: 33–8. ISBN 978-0-444-01030-8.

[5] Azanza, Rhodora V.; Max Taylor, F. J. R. Are Pyrodinium Blooms in the Southeast Asian Region Recurring and Spreading? A View at the End of the Millennium. Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment. 2001, 30 (6): 356–64. PMID 11757284. S2CID 20837132. doi:10.1579/0044-7447-30.6.356.

[6] Ngy, Laymithuna; Tada, Kenji; Yu, Chun-Fai; Takatani, Tomohiro; Arakawa, Osamu. Occurrence of paralytic shellfish toxins in Cambodian Mekong pufferfish Tetraodon turgidus: Selective toxin accumulation in the skin. Toxicon. 2008, 51 (2): 280–8. PMID 17996918. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.10.002. hdl:10069/22351  .

[7] Tsuchiya, Shigeki; Cho, Yuko; Konoki, Keiichi; Nagasawa, Kazuo; Oshima, Yasukatsu; Yotsu-Yamashita, Mari. Biosynthetic route towards saxitoxin and shunt pathway. Scientific Reports. 2016-02-04, 6 (1): 20340. Bibcode:2016NatSR...620340T. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4740887  . PMID 26842222. S2CID 2697610. doi:10.1038/srep20340  （英语）.

[8] Negri, Andrew P.; Jones, Gary J. Bioaccumulation of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins from the cyanobacterium Anabaena circinalis by the freshwater mussel Alathyria condola. Toxicon. 1995-05-01, 33 (5): 667–678. ISSN 0041-0101. PMID 7660371. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(94)00180-G （英语）.

[9] DeGange, Anthony R.; Vacca, M. Michele. Sea Otter Mortality at Kodiak Island, Alaska, during Summer 1987. Journal of Mammalogy. November 1989, 70 (4): 836–8. JSTOR 1381723. doi:10.2307/1381723.

[10] Geraci, Joseph R.; Anderson, Donald M.; Timperi, Ralph J.; St. Aubin, David J.; Early, Gregory A.; Prescott, John H.; Mayo, Charles A. Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) Fatally Poisoned by Dinoflagellate Toxin. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 1989, 46 (11): 1895–8. doi:10.1139/f89-238.

[11] Hernández, Mauro; Robinson, Ian; Aguilar, Alex; González, Luis Mariano; López-Jurado, Luis Felipe; Reyero, María Isabel; Cacho, Emiliano; Franco, José; López-Rodas, Victoria; Costas, Eduardo. Did algal toxins cause monk seal mortality?. Nature. 1998, 393 (6680): 28–9. Bibcode:1998Natur.393...28H. PMID 9590687. S2CID 4425648. doi:10.1038/29906. hdl:10261/58748  .

[12] Van Dolah, Frances M. Effects of Harmful Agal Blooms. Reynolds, John E. (编). Marine Mammal Research: Conservation Beyond Crisis. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. 2005: 85–101. ISBN 978-0-8018-8255-5.

[13] Kao, 1993; Prakach et al. 1971)

[14] Meyer et al, 1928

[15] Sommer and Mayer, 1937

[16] Schantz, et al., 1957

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