麻痺性貝毒

麻痺性貝毒(Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning toxin, PSP)是公認的四種貝毒症候群之一，它們有一些共同的特徵，主要與雙殼軟體動物（如貽貝、蛤蜊、牡蠣和扇貝）有關。這些貝類是濾食性動物，會累積神經毒素，主要是由甲藻、矽藻和藍藻等微小藻類產生的石房蛤毒素（Saxitoxin ，STX）。^[1] 亞歷山大藻屬雙鞭毛藻是數量最多、分佈最廣的石房蛤毒素產生者，是亞北極、溫帶和熱帶地區產生麻痺性貝毒藻華的罪魁禍首^[2]。大多數有毒藻華都是由形態種鏈狀亞歷山大藻（英語：Alexandrium catenella）（Alexandrium catenella）、塔瑪亞歷山大藻（英語：Alexandrium tamarense）（Alexandrium tamarense）、Gonyaulax catenella和亞歷山大藻（Alexandrium fundyense）引起的^[3]，它們共同組成了亞歷山大藻種群。^[4] 在亞洲，麻痺性貝毒主要與 Pyrodinium bahamense 物種的出現有關。^[5]

有些河豚，包括膨脹單孔魨，也含有石房蛤毒素，因此食用會造成傷害。^[6]

麻痺性貝毒在許多種不同的貝毒中毒事件屬最嚴重，因其強烈毒性，經常造成消費者的中毒死亡事件，同時發生案例的廣佈性與高發性，各國在水產品檢驗項目中莫不對麻痺性貝毒特別重視。

麻痺性貝毒與藍藻

真核雙鞭毛藻和原核藍藻（通常稱為藍綠藻）會產生麻痺性貝毒毒素（其中最常見的是石房蛤毒素）。在淡水海洋生態系中，藍綠藻產生的石房蛤毒素對持久性有機污染物毒素的累積貢獻最大。在藍綠藻中，藻毒素的生物合成過程非常明確，而在甲藻中，藻毒素的生物合成過程大多還不清楚。放射性同位素追蹤實驗研究了藍藻甲殼素的生物合成過程，結果顯示這種合成過程非常複雜，涉及許多步驟、酵素和化學反應。起始試劑 L-精胺酸經過幾個化學反應（其中一個罕見的化學反應稱為克萊森酯縮合反應），經過四個中間產物，最終形成石房蛤毒素。^[7]

澳洲淡水貽貝 Alathyria condola 極易累積神經毒素。每100克貽貝在與環狀藍藻（Anabaena circinalis）接觸2到3天後，可能會含有80微克以上的神經毒素，這一含量足以對人類健康造成重大威脅。^[8]

野生海洋哺乳動物體內的麻痺性貝毒

在阿拉斯加，海獺的主要獵物之一大石房蛤（Saxidomus gigantea）作為一種化學防禦機制會生物累積石房蛤毒素，因此麻痺性貝毒被認為可能是導致海獺死亡和發病的原因之一^[9]。此外，攝取含有石房蛤毒素的鯖魚也與座頭鯨的死亡有關。^[10]

在地中海，地中海僧海豹（Monachus monachus）^[11]被懷疑死於麻痺性貝毒的其他案例也受到質疑，因為缺乏額外的檢測來排除其他致死原因。^[12]。

歷史

關於麻痺性貝毒中毒事件，在十七世紀時的北美與歐洲已有類似事件的記載^[13]，但是當時對病因仍不清楚，直到1928年Meyer等人在報告中對麻痺性貝毒中毒的症狀加以描述^[14]，並推測毒素的來源可能來自於渦鞭毛藻；隨後又由餵食毒藻的貽貝實驗中得到上述假說的証實^[15]，而麻痺性貝毒一系列毒素的化學結構也在1957年由石房蛤(Saxidomus giganteus)中所分離出的石房蛤毒素Saxitoxin(STX)首次確認^[16]，其分子式為 C₁₀H₁₇N₇O₄。

內部連結

參考文獻

^ Clark, RF; Williams, SR; Nordt, SP; Manoguerra, AS. A review of selected seafood poisonings (PDF). Undersea & Hyperbaric Medicine. 1999, 26 (3): 175–84. PMID 10485519. 原始內容存檔於June 17, 2012.
^ Taylor, F. J. R.; Fukuyo, Y.; Larsen, J.; Hallegraeff, G. M. Taxonomy of harmful dinoflagellates. Hallegraeff, G.M.; Anderson, D.M.; Cembella, A.D. (編). Manual on Harmful Marine Microalgae. UNESCO. 2003: 389–432. ISBN 92-3-103948-2.
^ Cembella, A. D. Ecophysiology and Metabolism of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Marine Microalgae. Anderson, D. M.; Cembella, A. D.; Hallegraeff, G. M. (編). Physiological Ecology of Harmful Algal Blooms. NATO ASI. Berlin: Springer. 1998: 381–403. ISBN 978-3-662-03584-9.
^ Balech, Enrique. The genus Alexandrium or Gonyaulax of the Tamarensis Group. Anderson, Donald M.; White, Alan W.; Baden, Daniel G. (編). Toxic Dinoflagellates. New York: Elsevier. 1985: 33–8. ISBN 978-0-444-01030-8.
^ Azanza, Rhodora V.; Max Taylor, F. J. R. Are Pyrodinium Blooms in the Southeast Asian Region Recurring and Spreading? A View at the End of the Millennium. Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment. 2001, 30 (6): 356–64. PMID 11757284. S2CID 20837132. doi:10.1579/0044-7447-30.6.356.
^ Ngy, Laymithuna; Tada, Kenji; Yu, Chun-Fai; Takatani, Tomohiro; Arakawa, Osamu. Occurrence of paralytic shellfish toxins in Cambodian Mekong pufferfish Tetraodon turgidus: Selective toxin accumulation in the skin. Toxicon. 2008, 51 (2): 280–8. PMID 17996918. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.10.002. hdl:10069/22351  .
^ Tsuchiya, Shigeki; Cho, Yuko; Konoki, Keiichi; Nagasawa, Kazuo; Oshima, Yasukatsu; Yotsu-Yamashita, Mari. Biosynthetic route towards saxitoxin and shunt pathway. Scientific Reports. 2016-02-04, 6 (1): 20340. Bibcode:2016NatSR...620340T. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4740887  . PMID 26842222. S2CID 2697610. doi:10.1038/srep20340  （英語）.
^ Negri, Andrew P.; Jones, Gary J. Bioaccumulation of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins from the cyanobacterium Anabaena circinalis by the freshwater mussel Alathyria condola. Toxicon. 1995-05-01, 33 (5): 667–678. ISSN 0041-0101. PMID 7660371. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(94)00180-G （英語）.
^ DeGange, Anthony R.; Vacca, M. Michele. Sea Otter Mortality at Kodiak Island, Alaska, during Summer 1987. Journal of Mammalogy. November 1989, 70 (4): 836–8. JSTOR 1381723. doi:10.2307/1381723.
^ Geraci, Joseph R.; Anderson, Donald M.; Timperi, Ralph J.; St. Aubin, David J.; Early, Gregory A.; Prescott, John H.; Mayo, Charles A. Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) Fatally Poisoned by Dinoflagellate Toxin. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 1989, 46 (11): 1895–8. doi:10.1139/f89-238.
^ Hernández, Mauro; Robinson, Ian; Aguilar, Alex; González, Luis Mariano; López-Jurado, Luis Felipe; Reyero, María Isabel; Cacho, Emiliano; Franco, José; López-Rodas, Victoria; Costas, Eduardo. Did algal toxins cause monk seal mortality?. Nature. 1998, 393 (6680): 28–9. Bibcode:1998Natur.393...28H. PMID 9590687. S2CID 4425648. doi:10.1038/29906. hdl:10261/58748  .
^ Van Dolah, Frances M. Effects of Harmful Agal Blooms. Reynolds, John E. (編). Marine Mammal Research: Conservation Beyond Crisis. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. 2005: 85–101. ISBN 978-0-8018-8255-5.
^ Kao, 1993; Prakach et al. 1971)
^ Meyer et al, 1928
^ Sommer and Mayer, 1937
^ Schantz, et al., 1957

外部連結

Toxicity, Shellfish （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）
Lawrence JF, Maher M, Watson-Wright W. Effect of cooking on the concentration of toxins associated with paralytic shellfish poison in lobster hepatopancreas. Toxicon. 1994 Jan, 32 (1): 57–64. PMID 9237337. 請檢查|date=中的日期值 (幫助)
Yentsch CM, Balch W. Lack of secondary intoxification by red tide poison in the American lobster Homarus americanus. Environ Lett. 1975, 9 (3): 249–54. PMID 1238253.
SeaGrant Alaska's information on PSP
Washington State Shellfish Biotoxin Program

[uhm-1] Clark, RF; Williams, SR; Nordt, SP; Manoguerra, AS. A review of selected seafood poisonings (PDF). Undersea & Hyperbaric Medicine. 1999, 26 (3): 175–84. PMID 10485519. 原始內容存檔於June 17, 2012.

[2] Taylor, F. J. R.; Fukuyo, Y.; Larsen, J.; Hallegraeff, G. M. Taxonomy of harmful dinoflagellates. Hallegraeff, G.M.; Anderson, D.M.; Cembella, A.D. (編). Manual on Harmful Marine Microalgae. UNESCO. 2003: 389–432. ISBN 92-3-103948-2.

[3] Cembella, A. D. Ecophysiology and Metabolism of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Marine Microalgae. Anderson, D. M.; Cembella, A. D.; Hallegraeff, G. M. (編). Physiological Ecology of Harmful Algal Blooms. NATO ASI. Berlin: Springer. 1998: 381–403. ISBN 978-3-662-03584-9.

[4] Balech, Enrique. The genus Alexandrium or Gonyaulax of the Tamarensis Group. Anderson, Donald M.; White, Alan W.; Baden, Daniel G. (編). Toxic Dinoflagellates. New York: Elsevier. 1985: 33–8. ISBN 978-0-444-01030-8.

[5] Azanza, Rhodora V.; Max Taylor, F. J. R. Are Pyrodinium Blooms in the Southeast Asian Region Recurring and Spreading? A View at the End of the Millennium. Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment. 2001, 30 (6): 356–64. PMID 11757284. S2CID 20837132. doi:10.1579/0044-7447-30.6.356.

[6] Ngy, Laymithuna; Tada, Kenji; Yu, Chun-Fai; Takatani, Tomohiro; Arakawa, Osamu. Occurrence of paralytic shellfish toxins in Cambodian Mekong pufferfish Tetraodon turgidus: Selective toxin accumulation in the skin. Toxicon. 2008, 51 (2): 280–8. PMID 17996918. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.10.002. hdl:10069/22351  .

[7] Tsuchiya, Shigeki; Cho, Yuko; Konoki, Keiichi; Nagasawa, Kazuo; Oshima, Yasukatsu; Yotsu-Yamashita, Mari. Biosynthetic route towards saxitoxin and shunt pathway. Scientific Reports. 2016-02-04, 6 (1): 20340. Bibcode:2016NatSR...620340T. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4740887  . PMID 26842222. S2CID 2697610. doi:10.1038/srep20340  （英語）.

[8] Negri, Andrew P.; Jones, Gary J. Bioaccumulation of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins from the cyanobacterium Anabaena circinalis by the freshwater mussel Alathyria condola. Toxicon. 1995-05-01, 33 (5): 667–678. ISSN 0041-0101. PMID 7660371. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(94)00180-G （英語）.

[9] DeGange, Anthony R.; Vacca, M. Michele. Sea Otter Mortality at Kodiak Island, Alaska, during Summer 1987. Journal of Mammalogy. November 1989, 70 (4): 836–8. JSTOR 1381723. doi:10.2307/1381723.

[10] Geraci, Joseph R.; Anderson, Donald M.; Timperi, Ralph J.; St. Aubin, David J.; Early, Gregory A.; Prescott, John H.; Mayo, Charles A. Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) Fatally Poisoned by Dinoflagellate Toxin. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 1989, 46 (11): 1895–8. doi:10.1139/f89-238.

[11] Hernández, Mauro; Robinson, Ian; Aguilar, Alex; González, Luis Mariano; López-Jurado, Luis Felipe; Reyero, María Isabel; Cacho, Emiliano; Franco, José; López-Rodas, Victoria; Costas, Eduardo. Did algal toxins cause monk seal mortality?. Nature. 1998, 393 (6680): 28–9. Bibcode:1998Natur.393...28H. PMID 9590687. S2CID 4425648. doi:10.1038/29906. hdl:10261/58748  .

[12] Van Dolah, Frances M. Effects of Harmful Agal Blooms. Reynolds, John E. (編). Marine Mammal Research: Conservation Beyond Crisis. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. 2005: 85–101. ISBN 978-0-8018-8255-5.

[13] Kao, 1993; Prakach et al. 1971)

[14] Meyer et al, 1928

[15] Sommer and Mayer, 1937

[16] Schantz, et al., 1957

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