巴尔米拉

关于与“帕尔米拉”标题相近或相同的条目页，请见“帕迈拉”。

巴尔米拉（英语：Palmyra；希腊语：Παλμυρα，也译作：帕尔米拉），是在叙利亚中部的一个重要的古代城市，位于大马士革东北215公里，幼发拉底河西南120公里处。是商队穿越叙利亚沙漠的重要中转站，也是重要的商业中心。巴尔米拉是该城的希腊语名字，来源于它最初的亚拉姆语名字“塔德莫”（Tadmor），意为“棕榈树”。

帕尔米拉古城遗址

世界遗产
2010年的巴尔米拉
官方名称	Site of Palmyra（英文） Site de Palmyre（法文）
位置	叙利亚（阿拉伯国家）
标准	文化：(i)(ii)(iv)
参考编码	23
登录年份	1980年（第4届会议）
列为濒危	2013年至今
坐标	34°33′9″N 38°15′54″E

历史

古代

遗址鸟瞰

塔德莫最早是在马利（Mari）公元前2000年的文献中被提到，马力是附近另一连接美索不达米亚和北叙利亚的贸易城市。塔德莫也在旧约中被提到（历代志下8.4），是一座所罗门设防的沙漠城市。塔马城（Tamar）在列王纪上被提到，所罗门也在此设防，塔马被认为是塔德莫在传统希伯来读音中的读法。塔德莫在约瑟夫所著的《犹太古史》中被认为是所罗门所建，并指出希腊语名字巴尔米拉。

在现代希伯来语中，巴尔米拉的名字还是塔德莫。巴尔米拉的语源并不清楚，大多数学者都认为于此地的棕榈树有关，也有学者认为是塔德莫的讹译。

希腊化-罗马时期

当塞琉古一世于前312年控制叙利亚时，这座城市仍保持独立。城市在公元前1世纪作为过往商队的中转站而繁荣起来。前41年，马克·安东尼带领罗马军队试图占领巴尔米拉，但未能成功，因为巴尔米拉人都逃到幼发拉底河的对岸去了。这说明巴尔米拉当时还是个游牧的定居点，贵重物品可以在很短的时间内被转移。巴尔米拉在提比略统治时期被并入罗马帝国的叙利亚行省。巴尔米拉作为连接波斯、印度、中国和罗马帝国的贸易城市而迅速发展。在129年，哈德良巡幸了该城市，他称赞了巴尔米拉，宣布该城自由，并重命名为巴尔米拉·哈德良那（Palmyra Hadriana）。

剧院

从212年起，巴尔米拉的贸易衰落了，因为萨珊王朝控制了底格里斯河和幼发拉底河的河口。巴尔米拉的王子奥登纳图斯被罗马皇帝瓦莱里安任命为叙利亚行省的长官。在瓦莱里安被萨珊人俘虏后，奥登纳图斯为报复进攻萨珊波斯，两度打败沙普尔一世的军队。当奥登纳图斯被暗杀后，他的妻子芝诺比亚掌权，和她的儿子瓦巴拉图斯（Vabalathus）一起统治巴尔米拉。芝诺比亚成立巴尔米拉王国，与罗马当局对抗，并夺取了西到埃及的广大土地，甚至试图夺取安条克。在272年，罗马皇帝奥雷里安反攻，俘虏了芝诺比亚，并在罗马的凯旋式上让她带着金锁链以炫耀战功。巴尔米拉的叛乱使罗马很愤怒，帝国对巴尔米拉实行高压统治，并成为罗马边防的军事基地。戴克里先在这里增加驻军并修筑更坚固的城墙以抵抗萨珊波斯的威胁。在东罗马帝国时期城市大部分都被遗弃了。

伊斯兰时期

这座城市后来被阿拉伯人攻下。在16世纪，在一座附近的山上建造了法克雷丁·马尼城堡（Fakhredin al Maany）。城堡被一条壕沟围绕，只能从吊桥进入。后来的一场地震毁灭了巴尔米拉。

现代

伊斯兰国于2015年5月21日起占领该遗址并开始进行破坏活动。尽管该组织宣称不会破坏古城的主体建筑，但从BBC所刊发的影片来看，针对寺庙壁画、雕塑及一些神像遭到彻底摧毁。

叙利亚政府于2016年3月27日收复巴尔米拉时，仍保持约80%的完整性，但有些已毁坏，没有毁坏的剧院则沦为伊斯兰国残暴影片的背景。2016年12月11日，伊斯兰国再次攻占巴尔米拉。2017年3月2日叙利亚政府与俄罗斯联军在巴尔米拉攻势后再次收复。

遗址

塔状坟墓

现在的废墟大约保存了城市的原貌。主要的道路网保存完好，一条1.2公里长的有列柱的主干道从西向东，到贝尔神庙结束。在街的南面有议会、集市和剧场。建筑大多是科林斯式的，也受到美索不达米亚和波斯的影响。

在城市的东南面有许多塔状和地下墓穴。大多数塔状坟墓可以追溯到罗马时代以前，而地下墓穴为251年建成的。

贸易

巴尔米拉的贸易远到埃及、罗马、印度等地。巴尔米拉的财富主要来源于对商队的课税和当地商站。税收相当可观，商队必须经过这座城市，因为他们必须在穿越沙漠的途中在这里补充水和食物。

宗教

贝尔神庙

巴尔米拉的宗教主要受巴比伦的影响，但也有当地特色。巴尔米拉的主神是贝尔（Bel），可能是混合了巴力（Baal）和马杜克（Marduk）而产生的当地神。贝尔是天空之神，世界的创造者和众神之首。贝尔的旨意被认为可以从星象中反映出来，决定人与国家的命运，或是预示未来。

次于贝尔的神是太阳神亚希波尔（Yarhibol）和月亮神阿格利波尔（Aglibol）。

在2世纪，一种对一位不知名的神灵的崇拜流行了起来，只提到“他的名字是神圣的，慈悲而善良。”这可能和基督教和犹太教有关，也可能受其它宗教影响。

晨曦中的巴尔米拉全景

气候

巴尔米拉
月份	1月	2月	3月	4月	5月	6月	7月	8月	9月	10月	11月	12月	全年
平均高温 °C（°F）	12.1 (53.8)	14.7 (58.5)	19.4 (66.9)	25.2 (77.4)	30.7 (87.3)	35.4 (95.7)	38.1 (100.6)	37.9 (100.2)	34.4 (93.9)	28.3 (82.9)	19.9 (67.8)	13.5 (56.3)	25.8 (78.4)
平均低温 °C（°F）	2.5 (36.5)	3.8 (38.8)	6.9 (44.4)	11.5 (52.7)	15.9 (60.6)	19.8 (67.6)	21.5 (70.7)	21.6 (70.9)	19.1 (66.4)	14.3 (57.7)	7.7 (45.9)	3.5 (38.3)	12.3 (54.2)
平均降水量 mm（吋）	20.8 (0.82)	18.4 (0.72)	21.2 (0.83)	18.3 (0.72)	8.2 (0.32)	0.4 (0.02)	0 (0)	0 (0)	0.3 (0.01)	8.8 (0.35)	16.1 (0.63)	20.2 (0.80)	132.7 (5.22)
平均降水天数	7	10	6	4	2	0	0	0	0	3	5	7	44
数据来源：World Meteorological Organization

延伸阅读

• Addison, Charles Greenstreet. Damascus and Palmyra: a journey to the East 2. Richard Bentley. 1838. OCLC 833460514. 
• al-Asaad, Khaled; Chatonnet, Françoise Briquel; Yon, Jean-Baptiste. Reflections on the tokens found in the Arsu temple. Cussini, Eleonora (编). A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. Hillers. Brill. 2005. ISBN 978-90-04-12418-9. 
• al-ʻAsqalānī, Aḥmad ibn ʻAlī Ibn Ḥajar. Ḥabashī, Ḥasan , 编. Inbāʼ al-ghumr bi-anbāʼ al-ʻumr 2. Majlis al-Aʻlá lil-Shuʼūn al-Islāmīyah: Lajnat Iḥyāʼ al-Turāth al-Islāmī. 1969 [1446]. OCLC 22742875 （阿拉伯语）. 
• al-Maqdissi, Michel. Matériel pour l'Étude de la Ville en Syrie (Deuxième Partie): Urban Planning in Syria during the SUR (Second Urban Revolution) (Mid-third Millennium BC). Al-Rāfidān (Journal of Western Asiatic Studies) (Institulte for Cultural studies of Ancient Iraq, Kokushikan University). 2010,. Special Issue. ISSN 0285-4406. 
• al-ʻUmarī, Aḥmad ibn Yaḥyá Ibn Faḍl Allāh. al-Sarīḥī, ʻAbd Allāh ibn Yaḥyá , 编. Masālik al-abṣār fī mamālik al-amṣār (مسالك الأبصار في ممالك الأمصار) 3. Abū Dhabī : al-Majmaʻ al-Thaqāfī. 2002 [1348]. OCLC 4771042475 （阿拉伯语）. 
• al-Ziriklī, Khayr al-Dīn. al-Aʻlām : qāmūs tarājim li-ashhar al-rijāl wa-al-nisāʼ min al-ʻArab wa-al-mustaʻribīn wa-al-mustashriqīn 7 15. Dār al-ʻIlm lil-Malāyīn. 2002 [1927]. OCLC 78683884 （阿拉伯语）. 
• Ando, Clifford. Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. Edinburgh University Press. 2012. ISBN 978-0-7486-5534-2. 
• Andrade, Nathanael J. Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge University Press. 2013. ISBN 978-1-107-01205-9. 
• Bacharach, Jere L. Marwanid Umayyad Building Activities: Speculations on Patronage. Necipoğlu, Gülru (编). Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Cultures of the Islamic World 13. Brill. 1996. ISBN 978-90-04-25933-1. ISSN 0732-2992. 
• Ball, Warwick. Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. 2002 [1999]. ISBN 978-1-134-82387-1. 
• Ball, Warwick. Out of Arabia: Phoenicians, Arabs, and the Discovery of Europe. Asia in Europe and the making of the West 1. East & West Publishing. 2009. ISBN 978-1-56656-801-2. 
• Barnard, Anne; Saad, Hwaida. Palmyra Temple Was Destroyed by ISIS, U.N. Confirms. The New York Times. 31 August 2015 [12 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于2022-09-21）. 
• Beattie, Andrew; Pepper, Timothy. The Rough Guide to Syria 2. Rough Guides. 2001. ISBN 978-1-85828-718-8. 
• Belnap, R. Kirk; Haeri, Niloofar. Structuralist Studies in Arabic Linguistics: Charles A. Ferguson's Papers, 1954–1994. Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics 24. Brill. 1997. ISBN 978-90-04-10511-9. ISSN 0081-8461. 
• Ben-Yehoshua, Shimshon; Borowitz, Carole; Hanus, Lumír Ondøej. Spices: Frankincense, Myrrh, and Balm of Gilead: Ancient Spices of Southern Arabia and Judea. Janick, Jules (编). Horticultural Reviews. Horticultural Reviews 39. John Wiley & Sons. 2012. ISBN 978-1-118-10058-5. 
• Benzel, Kim; Graff, Sarah B.; Rakic, Yelena; Watts, Edith W. Art of the Ancient Near East: A Resource for Educators. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2010. ISBN 978-1-58839-358-6. 
• Beyer, Klaus. The Aramaic Language, Its Distribution and Subdivisions. 由Healey, John F.翻译. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 1986 [1984]. ISBN 978-3-525-53573-8. 
• Bielińska, Dorota. Small finds from pre-Classical Palmyra. Studia Palmyreńskie (Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw). 1997, 10. ISSN 0081-6787. 
• Brauer, George C. The Age of the Soldier Emperors: Imperial Rome, A.D. 244–284. Noyes Press. 1975. ISBN 978-0-8155-5036-5. 
• Browning, Iain. Palmyra. Noyes Press. 1979. ISBN 978-0-8155-5054-9. 
• Bryce, Trevor. The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. 2009. ISBN 978-1-134-15907-9. 
• Bryce, Trevor. Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. Oxford University Press. 2014. ISBN 978-0-19-100292-2. 
• Bubeník, Vít. Hellenistic and Roman Greece as a Sociolinguistic Area. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory Series 57. John Benjamins Publishing. 1989. ISBN 978-9-027-23551-0. 
• Burns, Ross. Monuments of Syria: A Guide revised. I.B.Tauris. 2009 [1992]. ISBN 978-0-85771-489-3. 
• Burns, Ross. Damascus: A History. Routledge. 2007 [2005]. ISBN 978-1-134-48849-0. 
• Busta, Hallie. An Open-Source Project to Rebuild Palmyra. The Journal of the American Institute of Architects. 23 October 2015 [12 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于2022-08-08）. 
• Butcher, Kevin. Roman Syria and the Near East. The British Museum Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-7141-2235-9. 
• Byliński, Janusz. Gawlikowski, Michał; Daszewski, Wiktor A. , 编. Palmyra: Arab Castle. Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean (Warsaw University Press). 1995, 7. ISSN 1234-5415. 
• Byliński, Janusz. Qal'at Shirkuh at Palmyra: A Medieval Fortress Reinterpreted. Bulletin d'Études Orientales (l'Institut français d'archéologie du Proche-Orient). 1999, 51. ISBN 978-2-901315-56-8. ISSN 2077-4079. 
• Cameron, Christina; Rössler, Mechtild. Many Voices, One Vision: The Early Years of the World Heritage Convention. Routledge. 2016 [2013]. ISBN 978-1-317-10102-4. 
• Carissimo, Justin. Isis propaganda video shows 25 Syrian soldiers executed by teenage militants in Palmyra. The Independent. 4 July 2015 [4 March 2017]. （原始内容存档于24 May 2022）.  含有连结内容需订阅查看的页面 (link)
• Carter, Terry; Dunston, Lara; Thomas, Amelia. Syria & Lebanon. Lonely Planet. 2008. ISBN 978-1-74104-609-0. 
• Casule, Francesca. Art and History: Syria. 由Boomsliter, Paula Elise; Dunbar, Richard翻译. Casa Editrice Bonechi. 2008. ISBN 978-88-476-0119-2. 
• Cave, Terry. The Battle Honours of the Second World War 1939–1945 and Korea 1950–1953: British and Colonial Regiments. Andrews UK Limited. 2012 [2003]. ISBN 978-1-781-51379-8. 
• Çelebi, Evliya. Narrative of Travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa in the Seventeenth Century 1. 由von Hammer-Purgstall, Freiherr翻译. Oriental Translation Fund. 1834 [1681]. OCLC 754957231. 
• Chamberlain, Michael. Military Patronage States and the Political economy of the Frontier, 1000–1250. Choueiri, Youssef M. (编). A Companion to the History of the Middle East. Blackwell Publishing. 2005. ISBN 978-1-4051-5204-4. 
• Chapot, Victor. Ogden, Charles Kay , 编. The Roman World. The History of Civilization. 由Parker, Edward Adams翻译. Routledge. 2014 [1928]. ISBN 978-1-134-73140-4. 
• Charnock, Richard Stephen. Local Etymology: A Derivative Dictionary of Geographical Names. Houlston and Wright. 1859. OCLC 4696115. 
• Cline, Eric H.; Graham, Mark W. Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press. 2011. ISBN 978-0-521-88911-7. 
• Cobb, Paul M. White Banners: Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750–880. State University of New York Press. 2001. ISBN 978-0-7914-4880-9. 
• Colledge, Malcolm Andrew Richard. The Art of Palmyra. Studies in Ancient Art and Archaeology 4. Thames & Hudson. 1976. ISBN 978-0-89158-617-3. 
• Colledge, Malcolm Andrew Richard. van Baaren, Theodoor Pieter; van den Bosch, Lourens Peter; Kippenberg, Hans Gerhard; Leertouwer, Lammert; Leemhuis, Fred; te Velde, Henk; Witte, Hans Antonius; Buning, H. , 编. The Parthian Period. Iconography of Religions. Section XIV: Iran (Institute of Religious Iconography, State University Groningen) 3. Brill. 1986. ISBN 978-90-04-07115-5. ISSN 0169-9873. 
• Colledge, Malcolm Andrew Richard; Wiesehöfer, Josef. Palmyra. Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (编). The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization 2. Oxford University Press. 2014 [1998]. ISBN 978-0-19-870677-9. 
• Cooke, George Albert. A Text-Book of North-Semitic Inscriptions: Moabite, Hebrew, Phoenician, Aramaic, Nabataean, Palmyrene, Jewish. The Clarendon Press. 1903. ISBN 978-5-87188-785-1. 
• Cotterman, William W. Improbable Women: Five who Explored the Middle East. Contemporary Issues in the Middle East. Syracuse University Press. 2013. ISBN 978-0-8156-5231-1. 
• Crawford, J. Stephens. The Byzantine Shops at Sardis. Monograph / Archaeological Exploration of Sardis 9. Harvard University Press. 1990. ISBN 978-0-674-08968-6. ISSN 0066-5975. 
• Curry, Andrew. Mystery of Lost Roman City Solved: Ancients Greened the Desert?. National Geographic News. 20 July 2012 [11 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于2019-04-24）. 
• Dąbrowa, Edward. Les Troupes Auxiliaires de L'armée Romaine en Syrie au Ier Siècle de Notre ère. Dialogues d'Histoire Ancienne. Annales littéraires de l'Université de Besançon (Volume 239) (les Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté). 1979, 5. ISBN 978-2-251-60239-4. ISSN 0755-7256. doi:10.3406/dha.1979.1387. 
• Dąbrowa, Edward. Legio X Fretensis. A Prosopographical Study of its Officers (I–III c. AD). Historia Einzelschriften 66. Franz Steiner Verlag. 1993. ISBN 978-3-515-05809-4.  含有内容需登入查看的页面 (link)
• Darke, Diana. Syria. Bradt Travel Guides. 2006. ISBN 978-1-84162-162-3. 
• Darke, Diana. Syria 2. Bradt Travel Guides. 2010 [2006]. ISBN 978-1-84162-314-6. 
• Dearden, Lizzie. Isis driven out of ancient Syrian city of Palmyra for second time. The Independent. 2 March 2017 [4 March 2017]. （原始内容存档于24 May 2022）.  含有连结内容需订阅查看的页面 (link)
• De Blois, Lukas. The Policy of the Emperor Gallienus. Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society: Studies of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society 7. Brill. 1976. ISBN 978-90-04-04508-8. 
• De Laborde, Leon. Journey Through Arabia Petraea, To Mount Sinai, And The Excavated City Of Petra, The Edom Of The Prophecies 1836. The Quarterly Christian Spectator (New Haven: A. H. Maltby). 1837, 9. OCLC 176276638. 
• Dignas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert. Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. Cambridge University Press. 2007 [2001]. ISBN 978-0-521-84925-8. 
• Dirven, Lucinda. The Palmyrene diaspora in East and West : a Syrian community in the diaspora in the Roman period. ter Haar, Gerrie (编). Strangers and sojourners: religious communities in the diaspora. Peeters Publishers. 1998. ISBN 978-90-429-0663-1. 
• Dirven, Lucinda. The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: A Study of Religious Interaction in Roman Syria. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 138. Brill. 1999. ISBN 978-90-04-11589-7. ISSN 0927-7633. 
• Dixon, Karen R.; Southern, Patricia. The Roman Cavalry. Routledge. 2005 [1992]. ISBN 978-1-135-11407-7. 
• Downey, Susan. "Temples a Escaliers": The Dura Evidence. Stroud, Ronald S.; Levine, Philip (编). California Studies in Classical Antiquity 9. University of California Press. 1977. ISBN 978-0-520-09565-6. 
• Downey, Susan. Funerary sculptures of Palmyra; Review of A. Sadurska and A. Bounni, Les sculptures funéraires de Palmyre. Journal of Roman Archaeology. 1996, 9. ISSN 1047-7594. 
• Drijvers, Hendrik Jan Willem. van Baaren, Theodoor Pieter; Leertouwer, Lammert; Leemhuis, Fred; Buning, H. , 编. The Religion of Palmyra. Iconography of Religions. Section XV Mesopotamia and the Near East (Institute of Religious Iconography, State University Groningen). Brill. 1976. ISBN 978-0-585-36013-3. ISSN 0169-8036. OCLC 714982019. 
• Drijvers, Hendrik Jan Willem. Cults and Beliefs at Edessa. Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain 82. Brill. 1980. ISBN 978-90-04-06050-0. 
• Drijvers, Hendrik Jan Willem. The Syrian Cult Relief. Kippenberg, Hans G.; van den Bosch, Lourens P.; Leertouwer, Lammert; Witte, Hans Antonius (编). Genres in Visual Representations: Proceedings of a Conference Held in 1986 by Invitation of the Werner-Reimers-Stiftung in Bad Homburg (Federal Republic of Germany).. Visible Religion. Annual for Religious Iconography (Institute of Religious Iconography, State University Groningen) 7. Brill. 1990. ISBN 978-90-04-09094-1. 
• Drinkwater, John. Maximinus to Diocletian and the 'crisis'. Bowman, Alan K.; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (编). The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337. The Cambridge Ancient History 12. Cambridge University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-521-30199-2. 
• Dubnov, Simon. History of the Jews From the Roman Empire to the Early Medieval Period 2. 由Spiegel, Moshe翻译. Thomas Yoseloff. 1968 [1916]. OCLC 900833618. 
• Dupont-Sommer, André. Une Nouvelle Inscription Araméenne d'Asoka Trouvée Dans la Vallée du Laghman (Afghanistan). Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres). 1970, 114 (1). ISSN 0151-0509. 
• Edwell, Peter. Between Rome and Persia: The Middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra Under Roman Control. Routledge. 2008. ISBN 978-1-134-09573-5. 
• Ehrenkreutz, Andrew S. Saladin. State University of New York Press. 1972. ISBN 978-0-87395-095-4. 
• Élisséeff, Nikita. Homs. Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (编). Historic Cities of the Islamic World. EI Reference Guides 1. Brill. 2007. ISBN 978-90-04-15388-2. 
• Elton, Hugh. Frontiers of the Roman Empire. Indiana University Press. 1996. ISBN 978-0-253-33111-3. 
• Evans, Jean M.; Kevorkian, Hagop. Palmyra. Milleker, Elizabeth J. (编). The Year One: Art of the Ancient World East and West. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2000. ISBN 978-0-87099-961-1. 
• Fellmann, Rudolf. Der Palast der Königin Zenobia. al-Asaad, Khaled; Ruprechtsberger, Erwin Maria (编). Palmyra, Geschichte, Kunst und Kultur der Syrischen Oasenstadt: Einführende Beiträge und Katalog zur Ausstellung. Linzer Archäologische Forschungen 16. Gutenberg. 1987. ISBN 978-3-900-40115-3 （德语）. 
• Fields, Nic. The Walls of Rome. Osprey Publishing. 2008. ISBN 978-1-84603-198-4. 
• Fowden, Elizabeth Key. The Barbarian Plain: Saint Sergius between Rome and Iran. Transformation of the Classical Heritage 28. University of California Press. 1999. ISBN 978-0-520-92220-4. 
• Fowden, Garth. Qusayr 'Amra: Art and the Umayyad Elite in Late Antique Syria. Transformation of the Classical Heritage Series 36. University of California Press. 2004. ISBN 978-0-520-92960-9. 
• Gambino, Lauren. Damages to Palmyra ruins in Syrian recapture less than feared, experts say. The Guardian. 28 March 2016 [12 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于2022-10-12）. 
• Gates, Charles. Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome. Routledge. 2003. ISBN 978-1-134-67662-0. 
• Gawlikowski, Michal. The City of the Dead. Cussini, Eleonora (编). A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. Hillers. Brill. 2005. ISBN 978-90-04-12418-9. 
• Gawlikowski, Michał. Zych, Iwona; Szymczak, Agnieszka , 编. Palmyra: reexcavating the site of the Tariff (fieldwork in 2010 and 2011). Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean (Warsaw University Press). 2011, 23 (1). ISSN 1234-5415. 
• Gawlikowski, Michał. Preface. Studia Palmyreńskie (Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw). 2013,. 12: Fifty Years of Polish Excavations in Palmyra 1959–2009, International Conference,Warsaw, 6–8 December 2010 [2022-08-12]. ISSN 0081-6787. （原始内容存档于2022-08-12）. 
• Gibb, Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen. The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades: Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn Al-Qalanisi Dover. Dover publications. 2002 [1932]. ISBN 978-0-486-42519-1. 
• Grabar, Oleg; Holod, Reneta; Knustad, James; Trousdale, William. City in the Desert. Qasr al-Hayr East. Harvard Middle Eastern Monographs 23–24. Harvard University Press. 1978. ISBN 978-0-674-13195-8. 
• Graf, David F. Zenobia and the Arabs. French, David H.; Lightfoot, Chris S. (编). The Eastern frontier of the Roman Empire: proceedings of a colloquium held at Ankara in September 1988 (Volume 1). British Archaeological Reports 553. BAR Publishing. 1989. ISBN 978-0-86054-700-6. 
• Grainger, John D. A Seleukid Prosopography and Gazetteer. Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava. Supplementum 172. Brill. 1997. ISBN 978-9-004-10799-1. ISSN 0169-8958. 
• Grainger, John D. The Battle for Syria, 1918–1920. Boydell Press. 2013. ISBN 978-1-84383-803-6. 
• Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, part 2, AD 363–628. Routledge. 2005 [2002]. ISBN 978-1-134-75646-9. 
• Greenberg, Andy. A Jailed Activist's 3-D Models Could Save Syria's History From ISIS. Wired. 21 October 2015 [12 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于2017-08-13）. 
• Greene, Joseph A. Aram. Metzger, Bruce Manning; Coogan, Michael David (编). The Oxford Guide to People & Places of the Bible. Oxford University Press. 2001. ISBN 978-0-19-517610-0.  含有内容需登入查看的页面 (link)
• Guntern, Gottlieb. The Spirit of Creativity: Basic Mechanisms of Creative Achievements. University Press of America. 2010. ISBN 978-0-7618-5053-3. 
• Hachlili, Rachel. Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1 the near and Middle East Series 35. Brill. 1998. ISBN 978-90-04-10878-3. 
• Halsberghe, Gaston H. The Cult of Sol Invictus. Études Préliminaires aux Religions Orientales dans l'Empire Romain 23. Brill. 1972. ISBN 978-9-004-30831-2. 
• Hamilton, Bernard. The Leper King and His Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem Digitally Printed First Paperback Version. Cambridge University Press. 2005 [2000]. ISBN 978-0-521-01747-3. 
• Hanihara, Kazurō; Sakaguchi, Yutaka; Akazawa, Takeru. Paleolithic site of the Douara Cave and paleogeography of Palmyra Basin in Syria. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. 1978. ISBN 978-0-86008-209-5. 
• Hanne, Eric J. Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-8386-4113-2. 
• Harris, William. Lebanon: A History, 600–2011. Oxford University Press. 2012. ISBN 978-0-19-021783-9. 
• Hartmann, Udo. Das palmyrenische Teilreich. Franz Steiner Verlag. 2001. ISBN 978-3-515-07800-9 （德语）. 
• Hartmann, Udo. What was it Like to be a Palmyrene in the Age of Crisis? Changing Palmyrene Identities in the Third Century AD. Kropp, Andreas; Raja, Rubina (编). The World of Palmyra. Palmyrenske Studier 1. The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters- Specialtrykkeriet Viborg a-s. 2016 [2022-08-12]. ISBN 978-8-773-04397-4. ISSN 1904-5506. （原始内容存档于2022-08-12）.  含有内容需登入查看的页面 (link)
• Hawting, Gerald R. Marwan II. Bosworth, Clifford Edmund; van Donzel, Emeri J.; Lewis, Bernard; Pellat, Charles (编). The Encyclopaedia of Islam (New Edition/EI-2) 6. Brill. 1991. ISBN 978-90-04-08112-3. 
• Healey, John F. The Early Alphabet. Reading the Past 9. University of California Press. 1990. ISBN 978-0-520-07309-8. ISSN 1754-7989.  含有内容需登入查看的页面 (link)
• Healey, John F. Aramaic Inscriptions and Documents of the Roman Period. Textbook of Syrian Semitic Inscriptions 4. Oxford University Press. 2009. ISBN 978-0-19-925256-5. 
• Hijmans, Steven Ernst. Sol: The Sun in the Art and Religions of Rome. University Library Groningen. 2009 [2022-08-12]. ISBN 978-9-036-73931-3. （原始内容存档于2020-03-06）. 
• Hillenbrand, Robert. 'Anjar and Early Islamic Urbanism. Brogiolo, Gian Pietro; Perkins, Bryan Ward (编). The Idea and Ideal of the Town Between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. The Transformation of the Roman World 4. Brill. 1999. ISBN 978-90-04-10901-8. ISSN 1386-4165. 
• Hoffmann-Salz, Julia. The Local Economy of Palmyra: Organizing Agriculture in an Oasis Environment. Erdkamp, Paul; Verboven, Koenraad; Zuiderhoek, Arjan (编). Ownership and Exploitation of Land and Natural Resources in the Roman World. Oxford University Press. 2015. ISBN 978-0-19-872892-4. 
• Holmes, Oliver. Syria's ancient oasis city of Palmyra threatened in fighting. Reuters. 3 April 2013 [12 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于2022-08-12）. 
• Holt, Peter Malcolm. The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517. Routledge. 2013 [1986]. ISBN 978-1-317-87152-1. 
• Holt, Peter Malcolm. Early Mamluk Diplomacy, 1260–1290: Treaties of Baybars and Qalāwūn with Christian Rulers. Islamic History and Civilization. Studies and Texts 12. Brill. 1995. ISBN 978-90-04-10246-0. 
• Hourani, George Fadlo. Carswell, John , 编. Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times. Khayats Oriental Reprints 3 expanded. Princeton University Press. 1995 [1951]. ISBN 978-0-691-00032-9. 
• Howard, Michael C. Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel. McFarland. 2012. ISBN 978-0-7864-9033-2. 
• Hoyland, Robert G. Arabia and the Arabs. From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. 2001. ISBN 978-0-415-19535-5. 
• Hudson, Leila G. Transforming Damascus: Space and Modernity in an Islamic City. Tauris Academic Studies. 2008. ISBN 978-1-84511-579-1. 
• Humphreys, R. Stephen. From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260. State University of New York Press. 1977. ISBN 978-0-87395-263-7. 
• Ibn al-ʻAdīm, Kamāl al-Dīn ʻUmar ibn Aḥmad. Zakkār, Suhayl , 编. Bughyat al-ṭalab fī tārīkh Ḥalab 7. Dār al-Fikr (دار الفكر). 1988 [1262]. OCLC 30968859 （阿拉伯语）. 
• Ibn al-Qalanisi, Abū Yaʻlā Ḥamzah ibn Asad ibn ʻAlī ibn Muḥammad al-Tamīmī. Zakkār, Suhayl , 编. Tārīkh Dimashq. Dār Ḥassān. 1983 [1160]. OCLC 23834177 （阿拉伯语）. 
• Ibn Arabshah, Ahmad ibn Muhammad. Ḥimṣī, Fāyiz , 编. ʻAjāʼib al-maqdūr fī nawāʼib Tīmūr. Muʼassasat al-Risālah. 1986 [1437]. OCLC 19942469 （阿拉伯语）. 
• Ibn 'Asakir, Ali ibn al-Hasan ibn Hibat Allah ibn 'Abd Allah, Thiqat al-Din, Abu al-Qasim. ʻAmrawī, ʻUmar ibn Gharāmah , 编. Tarikh Madinat Dimashiq (تاريخ مدينة دمشق) 57. Dār al-Fikr (دار الفكر). 1995 [1174]. OCLC 4770667638 （阿拉伯语）. 
• Ibn Battuta, Muhammad. Tāzī, ʻAbd al-Hādī , 编. Riḥlat Ibn Baṭūṭah al-musammāh Tuḥfat al-nuẓẓār fī gharāʼib al-amṣār wa-ʻajāʼib al-asfār. Silsilat al-turāth 1. Akādīmīyat al-Mamlakah al-Maghribīyah. 1997 [1355]. OCLC 37241892 （阿拉伯语）. 
• Ibn Khaldūn, ʻAbd al-Raḥmān. Zakkār, Suhayl; Šaḥāda, Ḫalīl , 编. Muqaddima (al-ʻibar wa-dīwān al-mubtadaʼ wa-al-khabar f̣ī ayyām al-ʻArab wa-al-ʻAjam ẉa-al-Barbar wa-man ʻāṣarahum min dhawī al-sulṭān al-al-akbar wa-huwa tarīkh waḥīd ʻaṣrih) 5 2. Dār al-Fikr (دار الفكر). 1988 [1375]. OCLC 912572900 （阿拉伯语）. 
• Ibn Šaddād, Bahā' ad-Dīn Yūsuf Ibn-Rāfiʿ. Vita et res gestae sultani Almalichi Alnasiri Saladini. 由Schultens, Albert翻译. Samuel Luchtmans. 1732 [1228]. OCLC 716049041 （拉丁语）. 
• Intagliata, Emanuele E. Palmyra after Zenobia AD 273–750: An Archaeological and Historical Reappraisal. Oxbow Books. 2018. ISBN 978-1-785-70945-6. 
• Irwin, Robert. Tribal Feuding and Mamluk Factions in Medieval Syria. Robinson, Chase F. (编). Texts, Documents, and Artefacts: Islamic Studies in Honour of D.S. Richards. Islamic History and Civilization. Studies and Texts 45. Brill. 2003. ISBN 978-90-04-12864-4. 
• Ismail, Farouk. Relations between Misherfeh-Qatna and the Middle Euphrates Region in the Middle Bronze Age (2000–1600 B.C.). Maqdissi, Michel; Abdulkarim, Maamoun (编). The Syrian Djezireh: Cultural Heritage and Interrelations. International Colloquium: Deir ez-Zor, April 22–25, 1996. Documents d'Archéologie Syrienne 1. Dimashq: Wizārat al-Thaqāfah, al-Mudīrīyah al-ʻĀmmah lil-Āthār wa-al-Matāḥif. 2002. OCLC 192118525. 
• Izumi, Takura. The Remains of Palmyra, the City of Caravans, and an Estimation of the City's Ancient Environment. Silk Roadology: Bulletin of the Research Center for Silk Roadology (Research Center for Silk Roadology). 1995, 1. OCLC 174059209. 
• Jeffries, Stuart. Isis's destruction of Palmyra: 'The heart has been ripped out of the city'. The Guardian. 2 September 2015 [4 March 2017]. （原始内容存档于2022-10-06）. 
• Juchniewicz, Karol. Late Roman fortifications in Palmyra. Studia Palmyreńskie (Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw). 2013,. 12: Fifty Years of Polish Excavations in Palmyra 1959–2009, International Conference,Warsaw, 6–8 December 2010 [2022-08-12]. ISSN 0081-6787. （原始内容存档于2022-08-12）. 
• Kaizer, Ted. Kingly Priests in the Roman Near East?. Hekster, Olivier; Fowler, Richard (编). Imaginary Kings: Royal Images in the Ancient Near East, Greece and Rome. Oriens et Occidens 11. Franz Steiner Verlag. 2005. ISBN 978-3-515-08765-0. 
• Kaizer, Ted. Trajectories of Hellenism at Tadmor-Palmyra and Dura-Europos. Chrubasik, Boris; King, Daniel (编). Hellenism and the Local Communities of the Eastern Mediterranean: 400 BCE–250 CE. Oxford University Press. 2017. ISBN 978-0-192-52819-3. 
• Kennedy, David; Riley, Derrick. Rome's Desert Frontiers. Routledge. 2004 [1990]. ISBN 978-1-135-78269-6. 
• Kennedy, Hugh N. The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East. Variorum Collected Studies Series 860. Ashgate Publishing. 2006. ISBN 978-0-7546-5909-9. 
• Kitto, John. The Pictorial Bible – being the Old and New Testaments according to authorized versions 2. Charles Knight & Co. 1837. OCLC 729755279. 
• Le Strange, Guy. Palestine under the Moslems, a description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the works of the medieval Arab geographers. Houghton, Mifflin and Co. 1890. OCLC 5965873. 
• Levick, Barbara. Julia Domna: Syrian Empress. Routledge. 2007. ISBN 978-1-134-32351-7. 
• Limet, Henri. Permanence et changement dans la toponymie. Fahd, Toufic (编). La Toponymie Antique (actes du colloque de Strasbourg, 12–14 juin 1975). Travaux du Centre de recherche sur le Proche-Orient et la Grèce antiques 4. Brill. 1977. OCLC 629792501 （法语）. 
• Liverani, Mario. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Routledge. 2013. ISBN 978-1-134-75084-9. 
• Loewe, Herbert Martin James. The Seljuqs. Bury, John Bagnell; Tanner, Joseph Robson; Previté-Orton, Charles William; Brooke, Zachary Nugent (编). The Eastern Roman Empire. The Cambridge Medieval History 4. Cambridge University Press. 1923. OCLC 650498400. 
• Loveluck, Louisa. Syrian regime 'launches air strike on world famous ancient city of Palmyra'. The Telegraph. 16 June 2015 [12 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于16 June 2015）. 
• Luxenberg, Christoph. The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran: A Contribution to the Decoding of the Language of the Koran. Verlag Hans Schiler. 2007 [2000]. ISBN 978-3-89930-088-8. 
• MacDowall, David w.; Taddei, Maurizio. The Early Historic Period: Achaemenids and Greeks. Allchin, Frank Raymond; Hammond, Norman (编). The Archaeology of Afghanistan from Earliest Times to the Timurid Period. Academic Press. 1978. ISBN 978-0-120-50440-4. 
• Mackay, Christopher S. Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. Cambridge University Press. 2004. ISBN 978-0-521-80918-4. 
• Mackay, Mairi. Palmyra: Will ISIS bulldoze ancient Syrian city?. CNN. 18 May 2015 [2 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于2015-07-16）. 
• Majcherek, Grzegorz. Excavating the basilicas. Studia Palmyreńskie (Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw). 2013,. 12 (Fifty Years of Polish Excavations in Palmyra 1959–2009: International Conference, Warsaw, 6–8 December 2010). ISSN 0081-6787. 
• Major, Balázs. Al-Malik Al-Mujahid, Ruler of Homs, and the Hospitallers (The Evidence in the Chronicle of Ibn Wasil). Hunyadi, Zsolt; Laszlovszky, József (编). The Crusades and the Military Orders: Expanding the Frontiers of Medieval Latin Christianity. Central European University Medievalia Series 1. Central European University Press. 2001. ISBN 978-963-9241-42-8. ISSN 1587-6470. 
• Makieh, Kinda. Islamic State militants blow up ancient Arch of Triumph in Palmyra. Reuters. 4 October 2015 [2 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于2022-08-12）. 
• Makieh, Kinda. Palmyra's dynamited temple can be restored, de-miners use robots. Reuters. 2 April 2016 [12 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于2017-05-10）. 
• Makieh, Kinda; Francis, Ellen. Less damage to ancient Palmyra than feared, Syrian antiquities chief says. Reuters. 3 March 2017 [6 March 2017]. （原始内容存档于2022-08-12）. 
• Makieh, Kinda; Perry, Tom; Merriman, Jane. Palmyra statue damaged by Islamic State goes on display in Damascus. Reuters. 1 October 2017 [3 October 2017]. （原始内容存档于2020-11-17）. 
• Maqdisi, Firas. Expert says Islamic State has badly damaged major Palmyra monument. Reuters. 5 March 2017 [6 March 2017]. （原始内容存档于2022-08-12）. 
• Markowski, Bartosz. Gawlikowski, Michał; Daszewski, Wiktor A. , 编. The Lion of Allat in Palmyra New Museum Display Project. Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean (Warsaw University Press). 2005, 16. ISSN 1234-5415. 
• Matthiae, Paolo. Archeaologist says '70% of Palmyra can be rebuilt'. Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata (ANSA). 30 June 2017 [4 July 2017]. （原始内容存档于2022-02-21）. 
• Macdonald, Michael C. A. On Saracens, the Rawwāfah Inscription and the Roman Army. Literacy and Identity in Pre-Islamic Arabia. Variorum Collected Studies Series. Ashgate Variorum. 2009 [2022-08-12]. ISBN 978-0-754-65965-5. （原始内容存档于2022-08-12）. 
• McGirk, Tim. Syrians Race to Save Ancient City's Treasures from ISIS. National Geographic News. 10 July 2015 [2 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于2019-06-09）. 
• McLaughlin, Raoul. Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the ancient lands of Arabia, India and China. Continuum International Publishing Group. 2010. ISBN 978-1-4411-6223-6. 
• Meier, Christian. The Greek Discovery of Politics. 由McLintock, David翻译. Harvard University Press. 1990 [1980]. ISBN 978-0-674-36232-1. 
• Mennen, Inge. Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284. Impact of Empire 12. Brill. 2011. ISBN 978-90-04-20359-4. 
• Métral, Francoise. Managing Risk: Sheep-Rearing and Agriculture in the Syrian Steppe. Mundy, Martha; Musallam, Basim (编). The Transformation of Nomadic Society in the Arab East. University of Cambridge Oriental Publications 58. Cambridge University Press. 2000. ISBN 978-0-521-77057-6. ISSN 0068-6891. 
• Meyer, Jørgen Christian. City and Hinterland. Villages and Estates North of Palmyra. New Perspectives. Studia Palmyreńskie (Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw). 2013, 12. ISSN 0081-6787. 
• Meyer, Jørgen Christian. Palmyrena: Palmyra and the Surrounding Territory from the Roman to the Early Islamic Period. Archaeopress Publishing. 2017a. ISBN 978-1-784-91708-1. 
• Meyer, Jørgen Christian. The Bride of the Dry Steppe: Palmyra and the Surrounding Territory. Aruz, Joan (编). Palmyra: Mirage in the Desert. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2017b. ISBN 978-1-588-39631-0. 
• Michalska, Julia. The man who spent 40 years preserving Palmyra's past. The Art Newspaper. 21 October 2016 [15 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于20 December 2016）. 
• Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337. Harvard University Press. 1993. ISBN 978-0-674-77886-3.  含有内容需登入查看的页面 (link)
• Millar, Fergus. Cotton, Hannah M.; Rogers, Guy M. , 编. The Greek World, the Jews & the East. Rome, the Greek World, and the East 3. University of North Carolina Press. 2006. ISBN 978-0-807-87665-7. 
• Millar, Fergus. Theodoret of Cyrrhus: A Syrian in Greek Dress?. Amirav, Hagit; ter Haar Romeny, Bas (编). From Rome to Constantinople: Studies in Honour of Averil Cameron. Late Antique History and Religion 1. Peeters Publishers. 2007. ISBN 978-90-429-1971-6. ISSN 2030-5915. 
• Moubayed, Sami. Syria and the USA: Washington's Relations with Damascus from Wilson to Eisenhower. Library of International Relations 56. I.B.Tauris. 2012. ISBN 978-1-780-76768-0. 
• Mukherjee, Bratindra Nath. Studies in Aramaic Edicts of Aśoka 2. Kolkata: Indian Museum. 2000 [1984]. OCLC 62327000. 
• Murtonen, Aimo Edvard. Hospers, Johannes Hendrik , 编. Hebrew in its West Semitic Setting. A Comparative Survey of Non-Masoretic Hebrew Dialects and Traditions. Part 1. A Comparative Lexicon. Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics 13. Brill. 1986. ISBN 978-90-04-08899-3. 
• Neep, Daniel. Occupying Syria Under the French Mandate: Insurgency, Space and State Formation. Cambridge Middle East Studies 38. Cambridge University Press. 2012. ISBN 978-1-107-00006-3. 
• O'Connor, Michael Patrick. The etymologies of Tadmor and Palmyra. Arbeitman, Yoël L. (编). A Linguistic Happening in Memory of Ben Schwartz: Studies in Anatolian, Italic, and Other Indo-European Languages. Bibliothèque des Cahiers de l'Institut de linguistique de Louvain (BCILL) 42. Peeters Publishers. 1988. ISBN 978-90-6831-143-3. ISSN 0779-1666. 
• O'Connor, Roisin. Isis in Syria: Militants 'severely damage' ancient Bel Temple in Palmyra using explosives. The Independent. 30 August 2015 [4 March 2017]. （原始内容存档于2017-03-05）. 
• Peters, John Punnett. Deir. Chisholm, Hugh (编). Encyclopædia Britannica 07 (第11版). London: Cambridge University Press: 933. 1911. 
• Petersen, Andrew. Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. Routledge. 1996. ISBN 978-1-134-61365-6.  含有内容需登入查看的页面 (link)
• Plets, Gertjan. Violins and Trowels for Palmyra: Post-Conflict Heritage Politics. Anthropology Today (Royal Anthropological Institute). 2017, 33 (4). ISSN 1467-8322. 
• Pollard, Nigel. Soldiers, Cities, and Civilians in Roman Syria. University of Michigan Press. 2000. ISBN 978-0-472-11155-8. 
• Potter, David S. The Transformation of the Empire: 235–337 CE. Potter, David S. (编). A Companion to the Roman Empire. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World 32. Blackwell Publishing. 2010. ISBN 978-1-4051-9918-6. 
• Purcell, Nicholas. Rome's New Kings (31 BC – AD 476). Jones, Peter V.; Sidwell, Keith C. (编). The World of Rome: An Introduction to Roman Culture. Cambridge University Press. 1997. ISBN 978-0-521-38600-5. 
• Qaddūrī, Zubayr Sulṭān. al-Thawrah al-mansīyah. Ittiḥād al-Kuttāb al-ʻArab. 2000. OCLC 45642553 （阿拉伯语）. 
• Qassim, Abdul-Zahra. IS destruction of ancient Syrian temple erases rich history. CNS News. 24 August 2015 [12 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于20 December 2016）. 
• Qīṭāz, ʻAdnān. Muhana Family. Shukrī, Muḥammad ʻAzīz (编). al-Mawsūʻah al-ʻArabīyah 19. al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah al-Sūrīyah, Riʼāsat al-Jumhūrīyah, Hayʼat al-Mawsūʻah al-ʻArabīyah. 2007. OCLC 46672427 （阿拉伯语）. 
• Raja, Rubina. Urban Development and Regional Identity in the Eastern Roman Provinces, 50 BC-AD 250: Aphrodisias, Ephesos, Athens, Gerasa. Museum Tusculanum Press. 2012. ISBN 978-87-635-2606-7. 
• Raschke, Manfred G. New Studies in Roman Commerce with the East. Temporini, Hildegard; Wolfgang, Haase (编). Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung, II Principat. Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt (ANRW) 9. De Gruyter. 1978. ISBN 978-3-11-001885-1. 
• Ricca, Simone. Palmyra. Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E. (编). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. 2007. ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5. 
• Richardson, Peter. City and Sanctuary: Religion and Architecture in the Roman Near East. SCM Press. 2002. ISBN 978-0-334-02884-0. 
• Robinson, David M. Baalbek, Palmyra. J.J. Augustin. 1946. OCLC 426276. 
• Romano, Irene Bald. Classical Sculpture: Catalogue of the Cypriot, Greek, and Roman Stone Sculpture in the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. University Museum Monograph 125. University of Pennsylvania Press. 2006. ISBN 978-1-934536-29-2. 
• Rosenthal, Franz. The Second Laghmân Inscription. Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies (Israel Exploration Society). 1978,. 14: H.L. Ginsberg Volume. ISSN 0071-108X. 
• Rostovtzeff., Michael Ivanovitch. Harmon, Austin M. , 编. Seleucid Babylonia : Bullae and Seals of Clay with Greek Inscriptions. Yale Classical Studies (Yale University Press). 1932, 3. ISSN 0084-330X. 
• Rostovtzeff, Michael Ivanovitch. Out of the Past of Greece & Rome. Biblo and Tannen's Graeco Life and Times Series 6. Biblo & Tannen Publishers. 1971 [1932]. ISBN 978-0-8196-0126-1. 
• Rostovtzeff, Michael Ivanovitch. Caravan Cities. 由Rice, David Talbot; Rice, Tamara Talbot翻译. The Clarendon Press. 1932. OCLC 2153578. 
• Sader, Hélène. History. van Soldt, Wilfred; Beckman, Gary; Leitz, Christian; Michalowski, Piotr; Miglus, Peter A.; Gzella, Holger (编). The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1 The Near and Middle East 106. Brill. 2014. ISBN 978-9-004-22845-0. ISSN 0169-9423. 
• Sartre, Maurice. The Arabs and the Desert Peoples. Bowman, Alan K.; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (编). The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337. The Cambridge Ancient History 12. Cambridge University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-521-30199-2. 
• Saul, Heather. Isis in Palmyra: Civilians forced to watch execution of 20 men at amphitheatre. The Independent. 28 May 2015 [4 March 2017]. （原始内容存档于26 October 2015）. 
• Schlumberger, Daniel. Bornes frontières de la Palmyrène. Syria (l'Institut Français du Proche-Orient). 1939, 20 (1): 43–73. ISSN 0039-7946. doi:10.3406/syria.1939.4166 （法语）. 
• Schmidt-Colinet, Andreas. Aspects of 'Romanization': The Tomb Architecture at Palmyra and Its Decoration. Alcock, Susan E. (编). The Early Roman Empire in the East. Oxbow Monographs in Archaeology 95. Oxbow Books. 1997. ISBN 978-1-900188-52-4. 
• Seland, Eivind Heldaas. Networks and Social Cohesion in Ancient Indian Ocean Trade: Geography, Ethnicity, Religion. Journal of Global History (Cambridge University Press). 2013, 8 (3): 373–390. ISSN 1740-0228. doi:10.1017/S1740022813000338 . 
• Seyrig, Henri. Antiquités Syriennes 29: A propos du culte de Zeus à Séleucie. Syria (Institut français du Proche-Orient). 1939, 20 (4) [2022-08-12]. ISSN 0039-7946. （原始内容存档于2022-07-05） （法语）. 
• Seyrig, Henri. Antiquités Syriennes 76: Caractères de l'histoire d'Émèse. Syria (l'Institut Français du Proche-Orient). 1959, 36 (3–4) [2022-08-12]. ISSN 0039-7946. （原始内容存档于2022-07-09） （法语）. 
• Shaheen, Kareem; Swann, Glenn; Levett, Cath. Palmyra – what the world has lost. The Guardian. 5 October 2015 [12 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于2022-08-22）. 
• Shaheen, Kareem. Palmyra: historic Syrian city falls under control of Isis. The Guardian. 21 May 2015 [13 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于2022-10-03）. 
• Shaheen, Kareem. Isis destroys tetrapylon monument in Palmyra. The Guardian. 20 January 2017 [20 January 2017]. （原始内容存档于2022-09-21）. 
• Shahîd, Irfan. Rome and the Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. 1984. ISBN 978-0-88402-115-5. 
• Shahîd, Irfan. Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century (Part1: Political and Military History) 1. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. 1995. ISBN 978-0-88402-214-5. 
• Shahîd, Irfan. Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century (Part1: Toponymy, Monuments, Historical Geography, and Frontier Studies) 2. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. 2002. ISBN 978-0-88402-284-8. 
• Sidebotham, Steven E.; Hense, Martin; Nouwens, Hendrikje M. The Red Land: The Illustrated Archaeology of Egypt's Eastern Desert. American University in Cairo Press. 2008. ISBN 978-977-416-094-3. 
• Sivertsev, Alexei. Private Households and Public Politics in 3rd–5th Century Jewish Palestine. Texte und Studien zum antiken Judentum 90. Mohr Siebeck. 2002. ISBN 978-3-16-147780-5. ISSN 0721-8753. 
• Smith, Sidney. Ursu and Ḫaššum. Anatolian Studies (Cambridge University Press on Behalf of the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara). 1956, 6: 35–43. ISSN 0066-1546. JSTOR 3642395. S2CID 155659015. doi:10.2307/3642395. 
• Smith II, Andrew M. Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. Oxford University Press. 2013. ISBN 978-0-19-986110-1. 
• Sommer, Michael. Palmyra: a History. Cities of the Ancient World 6. Routledge. 2018. ISBN 978-0-415-72002-1. 
• Southern, Patricia. Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. Continuum International Publishing Group. 2008. ISBN 978-1-4411-4248-1. 
• Speake, Graham. Palmyra (Homs, Syria). Berney, Kathryn Ann; Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle (编). International Dictionary of Historic Places. 4 (Middle East and Africe). Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. 1996. ISBN 978-1-884964-03-9. 
• Squires, Nick. Stone Sculptures Smashed by ISIL in Ancient City of Palmyra Restored to Former Glory by Italian Experts. The Telegraph. 16 February 2017 [16 June 2017]. （原始内容存档于12 January 2022）.  含有连结内容需订阅查看的页面 (link)
• Stoneman, Richard. Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. University of Michigan Press. 1994 [1992]. ISBN 978-0-472-08315-2. 
• Strong, Donald Emrys. Toynbee, Jocelyn Mary Catherine; Ling, Roger , 编. Roman Art. Pelican History of Art 44. Yale University Press. 1995 [1976]. ISBN 978-0-300-05293-0. ISSN 0553-4755. 
• Teixidor, Javier. The Pantheon of Palmyra. Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain 79. Brill. 1979. ISBN 978-90-04-05987-0. 
• Teixidor, Javier. Palmyra in the third century. Cussini, Eleonora (编). A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. Hillers. Brill. 2005. ISBN 978-90-04-12418-9. 
• Terpak, Frances; Bonfitto, Peter Louis. The Legacy of Ancient Palmyra. The Getty Research Institute. 2017 [10 February 2017]. （原始内容存档于2017-02-09）. 
• Tharoor, Kanishk; Maruf, Maryam. Museum of Lost Objects: The Temple of Bel. BBC News. 1 March 2016 [29 June 2017]. （原始内容存档于2022-08-12）. 
• Tomlinson, Richard A. From Mycenae to Constantinople: The Evolution of the Ancient City. Routledge. 2003 [1992]. ISBN 978-1-134-92894-1. 
• Tuck, Steven L. A History of Roman Art. John Wiley & Sons. 2015. ISBN 978-1-4443-3025-0. 
• van der Toorn, Karel. Becoming Diaspora Jews: Behind the Story of Elephantine. Yale University Press. 2019. ISBN 978-0-300-24949-1. 
• van Koppen, Frans. Pfälzner, Peter , 编. Qaṭna in altsyrischer Zeit. Qaṭna Studien Supplementa: Übergreifende und vergleichende Forschungsaktivitäten des Qaṭna-Projekts der Universität Tübingen (Harrassowitz Verlag). 2015,. 2: Qaṭna and the Networks of Bronze Age Globalism. Proceedings of an International Conference in Stuttgart and Tübingen in October 2009 [2022-08-12]. ISBN 978-3-447-10350-3. ISSN 2195-4305. （原始内容存档于2022-03-02） （德语）. 
• Vasudevan, Aruna. Athens (Attica, Greece): Agora. Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; La Boda, Sharon (编). International Dictionary of Historic Places. 3 (Southern Europe). Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. 1995. ISBN 978-1-884964-02-2. 
• Veyne, Paul. Palmyra: An Irreplaceable Treasure. 由Fagan, Teresa Lavender翻译. The University of Chicago Press. 2017 [2015]. ISBN 978-0-226-42782-9. 
• Waardenburg, Jacques. Changes of Belief in Spiritual Beings, Prophethood, and the Rise of Islam. Kippenberg, Hans Gerhard; Drijvers, Hendrik Jan Willem; Kuiper, Yme B. (编). Struggles of Gods: Papers of the Groningen Work Group for the Study of the History of Religions. Religion and Reason 31. Walter de Gruyter. 1984. ISBN 978-90-279-3460-4. ISSN 0080-0848. 
• Waardenburg, Jean Jacques. Islam: Historical, Social, and Political Perspectives. Religion and Reason 40. Walter de Gruyter. 2002: 405–436. ISBN 978-3-11-017178-5. ISSN 0080-0848. doi:10.1515/9783110200942.bm. 
• Watson, Alaric. Aurelian and the Third Century. Routledge. 2004 [1999]. ISBN 978-1-134-90815-8. 
• Watson, William E. Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World. Praeger Publishers. 2003. ISBN 978-0-275-97470-1. 
• Wheeler, Everett L. The Army and the Limes in the East. Erdkamp, Paul (编). A Companion to the Roman Army. Wiley-Blackwell. 2011. ISBN 978-1-4443-9376-7. 
• Whittow, Mark. The late Roman/early Byzantine Near East. Robinson, Chase F. (编). The formation of the Islamic World. Sixth to Eleventh Centuries. The New Cambridge History of Islam 1. Cambridge University Press. 2010. ISBN 978-1-316-18430-1. 
• Williams, Sara Elizabeth. Isil retakes historic city of Palmyra. The Telegraph. 11 December 2016 [13 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于12 January 2022）.  含有连结内容需订阅查看的页面 (link)
• Winter, Stefan. The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1788. Cambridge University Press. 2010. ISBN 978-1-139-48681-1. 
• Winter, Stefan. Alep et l’émirat du désert (çöl beyliği) au XVIIe-XVIIIe siècle. Winter, Stefan; Ade, Mafalda (编). Aleppo and its Hinterland in the Ottoman Period / Alep et sa province à l'époque ottomane. Brill. 2019. ISBN 978-90-04-37902-2. 
• Withnall, Adam. Isis executes Palmyra antiquities chief and hangs him from ruins he spent a lifetime restoring. The Independent. 19 August 2015 [12 December 2016]. （原始内容存档于2016-11-13）. 
• Wolfensohn, Israel. تاريخ اللغات السامية (History of Semitic Languages). دار القلم للطباعة و النشر و التوزيع. 2016 [1914]. OCLC 929730588 （阿拉伯语）. 
• Wood, Robert. The ruins of Palmyra, otherwise Tedmor, in the desart. London, Robert Wood. 1753. OCLC 642403707. 
• Wright, David P. Syria and Canaan. Johnston, Sarah Iles (编). Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide. Harvard University Press. 2004. ISBN 978-0-674-01517-3. 
• Yarshater, Ehsan. Hovannisian, Richard G.; Sabagh, Georges , 编. The Persian Presence in the Islamic World. Giorgio Levi della Vida Conference 13. Cambridge University Press. 1998. ISBN 978-0-521-59185-0. 
• Yon, Jean-Baptiste. Les notables de Palmyre. l'Institut français d'archéologie du Proche-Orient. 2002. ISBN 978-2-912738-19-6 （法语）. 
• Young, Gary K. Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305. Routledge. 2003 [2001]. ISBN 978-1-134-54793-7. 
• Zahran, Yasamin. Zenobia between Reality and Legend. BAR (British Archaeological Reports) International Series 1169. Archaeopress. 2003. ISBN 978-1-84171-537-7. ISSN 0143-3067. 
• Zuchowska, Marta. Wadi al Qubur and Its Interrelations with the Development of Urban Space of the City of Palmyra in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods. Kühne, Hartmut; Czichon, Rainer Maria; Kreppner, Florian Janoscha (编). Proceedings of the 4th International Congress of the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, 29 March – 3 April 2004, Freie Universität Berlin 1. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. 2008. ISBN 978-3-447-05703-5. 

外部链接

• Metropolitan Museum of Art – Palmyra （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
• Palmyra. Italian-Syrian Archaeological Mission of the University of Milan （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）

参见

• 叙利亚历史
• 叙利亚沙漠